Spring 2019 Part 2

The History of the United States Part 8 (The Second Era): 1974-1980


President Gerald Ford

After Watergate, the country of the United States of America was in a crossroads. There was political division, economic uncertainty, and confusion.  Gerald Ford now was the President by 1974.  Some people wanted to bring people together. The 1970’s saw massive social, political, and economic changes. Gerald Ford was a moderate Republican who had a long political history. He played football at the University of Michigan. He was in the United States Navy and fought Nazis during World War II. He was elected to the Congress and served in the House for 25 years, even being the House Minority Leader in 1965. Gerald Ford was a hard worker, and he had more integrity than Richard Nixon. Now as President, Gerald Ford was in a unique situation. Many people in America back then wanted Nixon to go into jail. The public didn’t have a massive trust in government. Economic problems plagued America too. Gerald Ford dealt with these problems, but his administration struggled politically. Ford allowed Nelson Rockefeller to be his Vice President. Nelson Rockefeller is known as a person who was the former governor of New York State, he was involved in the Attica disaster (where prisoners were assaulted brutally by law enforcement), and he supported the War on Drugs (despite his moderate views on other issues). Ford continued the Nixon foreign policy positions. Many people questioned why America propped up authoritarian, totalitarian anti-Communist governments while claiming to promote freedom overseas. Ford followed détente. Also, the Stalinist Soviet regime continued to suppress human freedom which is antithetical to the essence of socialism. Gerald Ford kept Henry Kissinger as Secretary of State. He desired detente with the Soviet Union and China. By late 1974, Gerald Ford and Leonid Brezhnev met.

They endorsed the Helsinki Accords. The document put the nations of Europe on record to promote human rights. Gerald Ford wanted the Soviet Union to promote more political freedoms. This set the stage for SALT II which wanted to limit nuclear weapons among America and the Soviet Union. Gerald Ford saw the end of the Vietnam War. The communist Khmer Rouge in Cambodia killed 1.5 million people from 1975 to 1979. The U.S. didn’t stop this. The exception was when U.S. Marines freed the American merchant ship called the Mayaguez when it was seized by the Khmer Rouge. South Vietnam lost to North Vietnam while Ford was President. Congress refused to invest money to help the Vietnamese people in the South, and American troops came home from the conflict. Hundreds and thousands of Vietnamese people fled into America. Some used boats to escape. These boats included some of the largest mass migration in modern history. In 20 years, more than 1 million men, women, and children left Vietnam and came to other nations abroad. Some Vietnamese people came into America and Canada. It wouldn’t be until decades later until Vietnam and America would have a better relationship with each other.

One of his most controversial actions was a full pardon of Richard Nixon for any crime that he had committed as President. Gerald Ford believed that pardoning Nixon would be the only way to move forward since a trial of Nixon would last undoubtedly for years. Ford wanted to heal the nation’s wounds, but he was criticized for it. Ford denied that he used a pardon to fulfill a deal with Nixon. His popularity went down. Watergate was fresh in people’s minds back then. Later, the 1974 election existed. That election caused Republicans to lose 48 seats in the House of Representatives including Ford’s district in Grand Rapids, Michigan. President Ford had to deal with stagflation too. Stagflation was about high inflation and a stagnant economy. Inflation was in double digits by 1974. So, Ford wanted to lower inflation and lower prices by his voluntary plan called Whip Inflation Now. WIN didn’t work since it was voluntary and Ford had no extensive economic plan for economic growth. Factories shut down. Consumer demands for goods decreased. Unemployment massively grew which further caused Ford to lose support. Gerald Ford's Presidency ended as an end of an era for Republicans. He was the last Eisenhower Republican President and future Republican Presidents from Reagan to Trump would embrace a more far right agenda.

The Progressive Movements of the 1970's

The 1970’s was a decade of a massive cultural change in America. Also, it was when the culture war in the United States grew into another level. Issues of busing, abortion, affirmative action, women’s rights, etc. were on full display during that time. By the early 1970’s, the Civil Rights Movement, the Feminist Movement (with Gloria Steinem, Susan Brownmiller, and Kate Millett), and other movements grown in power and influence. People talk about Gloria Steinem (Gloria admitted that she had ties to the CIA. She said the falsehood that the CIA was once liberal, nonviolent, and honorable. That's a lie since the CIA from back in the day was involved in voter tampering, imperialism, and funding reactionary regimes), but Susan Brownmiller is the most disrespectful white feminist against black people in modern history. She made derogatory comments about the Scottsboro boys and Emmett Till (lying in saying that Till wanted to sexual harass Carolyn Bryant when Bryant admitted that he or Till never harassed her) in her literature that has been omitted by even great mainstream historians. Brownmiller’s racism (or omitting the long history of some white women falsely accusing black men of rape causing the lynchings of black people) is not representative of all feminists, so I want to make that perfectly clear. Black women also led the anti-lynching movement and Angela Davis was right to criticize Brownmiller’s (who ironically was in CORE and SNCC back during the 1960’s) racist Against Our Will book. Still, feminists to this very day have heroically stood up for the human rights of women. The big debate during the 1970’s involving women's rights was about the ERA. The ERA movement simply wanted equality based upon sex. It was mainstream and totally legitimate. Many people from across the political spectrum supported the Amendment proposal. Some conservatives like Schafly opposed the law since she believed that it would disrupt family order and end the nuclear family construct, which is completely ludicrous. Patsy Mink was the first Asian American woman elected to Congress and was the coauthor of the Education Amendments Act of 1972, Title IX (that bans sex discrimination in education). Mink was a lover of law and fought racial discrimination when she was a student at the University of Nebraska. Shirley Chisholm, Bella Abzug, and other women fought for women’s rights.



ERA or the Equal Rights Amendment was originally introduced into Congress by 1923. Second wave feminists enthusiastically supported the ERA. By 1972, both houses of Congress and Richard Nixon supported it. Then, the ERA came into the states for their votes. In January 1977, Indiana became the 35th state to ratify the ERA. The amendment was now only three states shy of becoming law, but the effort was losing momentum. Many feminists saw the National Women's Conference in November 1977 as a chance to breathe new life into it. More than 14,000 women gathered to discuss the problems facing women and formulate a plan of action to deliver to President Carter. Coretta Scott King supported the conference too. Many divisions came about with some women disagreeing on issues like abortion and gay rights. Phyllis Schlafly led a counter protest. She believed that the ERA proposal sought to deconstruct the differences among men and women in order to form some new reality. The ERA ultimately failed in the states. Yet, nothing will be the same again. We have come a long way from decades ago, but we have such a long way to go. That is why movements like #MeToo (which was formed by the black woman Tarana Burke) exist in fighting for sex equality.

Affirmative action was a hot button issue too. Allan P. Bakke sued the University in California to claim that it discriminated against him. The Supreme Court in the Regents of the Univ. of Cal. v. Bakke decision of 1978 banned racial quotas involving education. It did upheld affirmative action allowing race to be one of many factors in college admission policy.  The far right want affirmative action abolished while many progressives criticized the decision as cutting away at efforts to support racial justice. Others from across the political spectrum back then also supported the decision as a compromise. In 1996, Californians by initiative banned the state's use of race as a factor to consider in public schools' admission policies. The university's Board of Regents, led by Ward Connerly, voted to end race as a factor in admissions. Today, affirmative action is permitted, but its survival is threatened.

By 1971, the 26th Amendment was ratified to allow 18 year olds the right to vote. Roe. V. Wade in 1973 overturned state laws against abortion. That ruling allowed abortion legal in all 50 states. Roe v. Wade divided abortion restrictions based upon trimesters. More abortion restrictions existed in later trimesters than earlier trimesters. To this very day, abortion is debated in passionate discussions. That era of time had an upward growth of identity politics. Identity politics is the strategy that in order to make change, interests of a specific group like culture, race, ethnicity, religion, sex, or sexual orientation must be advanced. That is why during the 1970’s, African Americans, Native Americans, Latino Americans, LGBTQIA+ Americans, women, Asian Americans and other challenged discriminatory laws and wanted governmental change that would further their interests. In 1970, the average life expectancy for a Native American person was 46 years compared to the national average of 69. The Native American suicide rate was twice that of the general population, and the infant mortality rate was the highest in the country. Half of all Native Americans lived on reservations, where unemployment reached 50 percent. Of Native Americans living in cities, 20 percent lived below the poverty line. That is why Dennis Banks, George Mitchell, and Clyde Bellecourt plus others promoted rights for Native American human beings. As for gays and lesbians, in 1974, Kathy Kozachenko was the first openly lesbian woman voted into office in Ann Arbor, Michigan, In 1977, Harvey Milk was the first openly gay man in California elected to public office (as a member of the San Francisco Board of Supervisors). He was murdered by disgruntled former city supervisor Dan White. Anita Bryant was a conservative who was against homosexuality back during the 1970’s. She was famous for being hit by a pie by an activist. John Briggs was forced to drop out of the 1978 race for California governor, but received enthusiastic support for Proposition 6, dubbed the Briggs Initiative. The proposed law would have made firing gay teachers—and any public school employees who supported gay rights—mandatory.  Even Reagan, Jerry Brown, and Jimmy Carter opposed Proposition 6 because it violated individual rights. The Proposition 6 failed on November 7, 1978.

President Jimmy Carter

By the mid-1970’s, Jimmy Carter rose up in the political arena nationally. Carter worked in Georgia. He was once governor of the state of Georgia. By 1976, he won the election with a slim popular vote majority. Carter presented himself as an ordinary man. Many people distrusted professional politicians. He is a born again Christian, so many fundamentalist Christians supported his candidacy. This would be the first time in a long time where conservative Christian voters would have a huge influence in a Presidential election. A Christian fundamentalist is a person who believes in a strict, literal interpretation of the Bible as the foundation of the Christian faith.  Conservative Christians increased their role in politics by the 1970’s. Carter had inexperience in national political affairs. He had town meetings, he walked in the inaugural parade, and he carried a suitcase. He was a center-left President. He had trouble getting legislation because he lacked many ties with Democratic leaders in Congress. Also, it is no secret that Carter and Edward Kennedy didn’t like each other. Jimmy Carter accused Kennedy of ruining chances of his national health care bill. Edward Kennedy accused Carter of not being progressive enough on issues. President Carter passed bills with input from his party.

Jimmy Carter fulfilled one of his campaign promises to give amnesty to Americans who fled America during the draft of the Vietnam War. Carter wanted to help people move forward from the Vietnam War and the divisiveness it had. Yet, the war was emotional for many and Carter was criticized by many for his action. Barry Goldwater criticized Carter for this, but Carter realized that the Vietnam War caused pain in America. The Vietnam War was an unjust war and pardoning many is far better than allowing more people to die in an unjust war. Jimmy Carter had to deal with the energy crisis and inflation like Ford did. Inflation made items more expensive, it stripped savings, and it was terrible. Western European and Japanese companies competing more for the car market than decades ago. Japan sold fuel efficient and less expensive vehicles. This resulted in more profits for Japanese companies instead of more profits for U.S. companies. Chrysler had to get a federal loan to survive the new market reality. The energy crisis dealt with rising oil prices. A gallon of gas rose from 40 cents in 1973 to $1.20 by 1979. Fuel shortages were bad in 1976 and 1977. Folks needed heating oil. Factories closed and businesses lost profits because of fuel shortages. The conservative movement grew into new heights by the late 1970’s too. More Americans joined Evangelical churches. By 1980, one in five Americans was a religious fundamentalist. Also, many megachurch and Evangelical pastors used television by the late 1970’s to spread their message like Jerry Falwell, Pat Robertson, 33rd Degree Freemason Oral Roberts, and others. Millions of viewers saw their shows and religious promotion. At his peak, Falwell had 280 stations showing his views and his broadcast was sent to 1.5 million viewers. Religious conservatives hated the progressive changes in the 60’s and 70’s. Some hated abortion, many disagreed with the ERA, many differently disagreed with homosexuality, and others believe that the Supreme Court eliminated prayer in school (which is lie. The Supreme Court said that teacher or government led prayer in public schools is illegal not individuals praying in public school on their own accords). Falwell formed the Moral Majority in 1979. Religious conservatives are right that adultery is wrong, integrity is important to advance, cults (like Scientology, etc.) should be exposed, and that there is nothing wrong with believing in God.

The weakness of many conservative religious people is that many of them readily ignore the important issues of labor rights, environmental justice, combating racism, ending sexism, and fighting imperialism overseas. Some of them falsely want equality for some people and not for others which contradicts the premise of the Golden Rule (or treating your neighbor as yourself. In other words, equality and justice for all means for all. Many conservative religious people embrace bigotry, xenophobia, and hatred of any progressive contribution to human civilization). Also, you can’t coerce people to follow your viewpoint as people have the right to voluntarily believe or not believe in your views. It is not morally right to jail someone if he or she is ideologically opposed to your views. You can peacefully agree to disagree. Many religious conservatives allied with economic conservatives and anti-Communist radicals to oppose government spending plus advance a hawkish foreign policy (that grows defense spending). This alliance was one major catalyst in bringing Ronald Reagan to be President by 1980. By 1978, affirmative was limited by the Supreme Court via California v. Bakke to make race as one factor in admission cases while eliminating racial quotas.

Jimmy Carter dealt with foreign policy issues too. Jimmy Carter wanted a foreign policy that respected human rights internationally. He wanted other nations to end torture, stop the abuse of human rights, and end political repression. He desired to fight evil and stop the imprisonment of people without trial. Jimmy Carter at first continued the detente policy with the Soviet Union. He met with Leonid Brezhnev and promoted the SALT II Treaty. Many in the Senate opposed SALT II since they believed that the national security of America would be in jeopardy. Later, in December 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan since Afghanistan back then was ruled by a socialist government and the Soviets wanted to prop it up. Carter withdrew from the SALT II Treaty and banned Americans from participating in the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. Elitists like the late Trilateral Commission member Zbigniew Brzezinski influenced President Carter to express a more hawkish tone against the Soviet Union. Brzezinski hated the Soviets and aided the Mujahedeen to fight in Afghanistan via the CIA’s Operation Cyclone. Osama bin Laden was a member of the Mujahedeen movement. President Carter wanted human rights to be advanced in Latin America, Asia, and Africa. These developing nations in those regions were in the Cold War history. Carter wanted to ally with nations that treated its citizens very good. President Jimmy Carter said such words in the Commencement Address at Notre Dame University in 1977:

"...For too many years, we've been willing to adopt the flawed and erroneous principles and tactics of our adversaries, sometimes abandoning our own values for theirs. We've fought fire with fire, never thinking that fire is better quenched with water...I believe that it is a mistake to undervalue the power of words and of the ideas that words embody."

Nicaragua was fueled by the Somoza family filled with dictators. Carter wanted that changed. The leftist Sandinistas in 1978 rebelled against the Sandinistas. General Anastasio Somoza ruled Nicaragua back then. Carter withdrew support from Somoza because of his brutal dictatorship. General Somoza fled since he had little power, and the Sandinistas came into power. Carter wanted to improve relations in Cuba too. Fidel Castro ruled Cuba since 1959 and he was a Stalinist communist.

Relations among Cuban and America became worse by 1980. The reason was that Castro wanted anyone to leave the island from the port of Miami to leave. The catch was that Castro wanted criminals to leave from the island’s prisons. The Mariel situation was controversial. Less than 20 of the people transported had spent time in prison. Many folks were political prisoners. Americans in many cases disagreed with Castro. Some viewed Castro as having no concern for the welfare of the emigrants. Carter returned the Panama Canal Zone to Panama. This policy was right and warranted, but he was criticized for it by reactionaries. The Senate narrowly supported the decision by 1978 and gradually the canal was controlled by Panama. One of President Carter’s greatest accomplishments was his historic peace agreement negotiated by him among Israel and Egypt. Egypt once didn’t agree with Israel’s existence in 1948. President Anwar el-Sadat wanted better relations in 1977. Egyptian President Anwar el-Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin met in Jerusalem to negotiate a peace agreement. Carter invited both men in Camp David to make a deal. Camp David is a Presidential retreat. After nearly two weeks, Begin and Sadat agreed to have the Camp David Accords. This was about Egypt recognizing the nation of Israel's existence while Israel withdrew its troops from the Sinai Peninsula (which it had controlled after the 1967 Six Day War). It was a historic time. Later, another disaster came. Carter wanted the agreement to be a springboard to promote cooperation in the Middle East. Later, his Presidency would end in part by the events of Iran.

For decades since the 1950’s, America supported the dictator called the Shah in Iran. Iranian protests against him increased by the 1970’s. The Shah left Iran since he had cancer. This was in January of 1979. Later, the fundamentalist clerics supported the Ayatollah Khomeini to rule Iran. Carter allowed the Shah to get medical aid in America. Iranian students protested this decision. Later, some Iranian students invaded the U.S. Embassy and kidnapped 66 Americans as hostages. Khomeini ran the Iranian government. Khomeini and his supporters wanted to defy America. The hostage crisis dominated the last part of Carter’s Presidency. This crisis caused many Americans to see that foreign policy wasn’t just about the Soviet Union. It dealt with the Middle East too. Few Americans were released early. Later, the rest would stay for 444 days. It would only be after Ronald Reagan would be inaugurated at January of 1981 when the rest of the American hostages would leave Iran. By 1980, the conservative movement grew and reached into new heights of power. At 1964, the conservative movement was low in power after the defeat of Barry Goldwater. That is why the conservatives planned to establish a long term organizational power base to get the White House by 1980.

New Music Rising

The decade of the 1970’s included amazing music. It showcased the talent of people of numerous genres. The early 1970’s in many respects had the continuation of music in style from the late 1960’s. Later, the decade of the 1970’s had songs involving conscious issues, fun, dancing, romance, adventure, creative power, and other inspirational qualities. There was funk, smooth, jazz, soul, rock, heavy metal, rhythm and blues, and disco. There was the rise of punk too by the mid to late 1970’s. In this decade, there was the birth of hip hop. By 1970, Diana Ross has left the Supremes. The Supremes is the most successful and influential women group of all time. Diana Ross started her solo career in the early 1970's along with developing her own film career. Austin, Texas grows as a destination for music festivals, especially involving country music. Heavy metal is popularized by group like Lep Zeppelin and Black Sabbath. Charlie Gillett’s “The Sound of the City” is the first comprehensive book on the history of R&B and rock. Latino artists like El Chicano promoted music with hits like Viva Tirado. Francis Grasso opened a disco in New York City. Miles Davis showed music. Digital synthesizers were formed in 1970. The Stooges advance punk rock and hardcore. Glam Rock was created by the early 1970’s with artists like David Bowie, New York Dolls, and Lou Reed. Haitian music is growing. By the early the 1970’s, the Philly sound of soul takes America by storm with artists like The O’Jays and the Blue Notes with their music. Due to the emphasis on sound and arrangement and the relative anonymity of many of the style's players, Philadelphia soul is often considered a producers' genre. Bunny Sigler, Kenny Gamble and Leon Huff were credited with developing the genre. Artists with the Philadelphia soul sound also included people like: Patti Labelle, the Delfonics, Lou Rawls, the Three Degrees, Barbara Mason, Dee Dee Sharp, Teddy Pendergrass, the Spinners, and other musicians.

Andrew Lloyd Weber’s Jesus Christ Superstar is very popular by 1971 too. George Harrison’s music caught on. Marvin Gaye’s “What’s Going On” is released in 1971. It is a critically acclaimed album that talks about race, ecology, family, the Vietnam War, and other important issues. It is the bestselling album in Motown’s history. Marvin Gaye was mourning the death of Tammi Terrell after she suffered a brain tumor. Marvin Gaye had depression and considered leaving the music business permanently. Yet, he got up to record a prominent album that touched on so many issues. Portia K. Maultsby organized the first African American popular music ensemble at a university (Indiana University) that constituted a credit course.

There can be no celebration of music without celebrating Soul Train without question. When I was a child during the 1980's and the 1990's, I watched Soul Train all of the time every Saturday. It was a TV ritual among many of us who are African Americans (and people who are lovers of music in general). Don Cornelius created Soul Train as a means for him to show the creativity, the rhythm, the beauty, and the strength of black people. He didn't do this alone. His family, dancers, Gladys Knight, and other people did courageous work in building Soul Train up as being an iconic part of musical culture. The show SOUL! was a predecessor of Soul Train with guests and music as well. Soul Train brought not only music throughout audiences worldwide. It brought history lessons about black people, it gave diverse people the opportunities to express themselves (with dancers like Damita Jo Freeman, Darnell Williams, Rerun, Rosie Perez, Cheryl Song, Jody Watley, Jeffery Daniel, etc.), and it showed Blackness in its diverse majesty. The group Shalamar had its start from Soul Train.

To be black is to be diverse in our speech, in our backgrounds, and in our souls. Our souls are priceless, and the Soul Train Awards to this very day has been a great promoter of the contributions of excellent artists. Don Cornelius went from Chicago to Los Angeles to display his gifts to the world. Many documentaries and shows celebrate the vibrant legacy of Soul Train like the documentary, "Soul Train: The Hippest Trip in America" (from Vh1) and the recent miniseries American Soul (from BET). Soul Train as a show lasted from 1971 to 2006. Real music is timeless, and the legacy of Soul Train's permanent influence reaches us greatly. Like always:

Peace, Love, and Soul.

The Blaxploitation era dealt with new music in the black popular culture scene as well. One of the greatest artists of that era was the singer Isaac Hayes. Jimmy Cliff in 1972 has success in his music and helps to bring more American awareness about reggae and Jamaican rock. Peter Tosh was one of the greatest reggae artist in history with albums like Equal Rights from 1977. Bob Marley’s Catch a Fire is an international hit too. Marley was another reggae artist who helped to internationalize reggae music. Myrrh Records is the first Christian rock record label. Disco’s first hit was Manu Dibango’s Soul Makossa. Hip hop would be invented by 1973 by DJ Kool Herc. Olivia Records, the first record label run entirely by women, is formed. The same year, the first women's music festival is held at Sacramento State University. In 1974, Gloria Gaynor’s “Never Can Say Goodbye” would be the first disco hit to reach the charts. The NEA supported jazz. By 1975, Bruce Springsteen goes into another level of popularity with his Born to Run album. He reenergized rock and roll music. Funk albums by Kool and the Gang (Spirit of the Boogie) and Earth, Wind and Fire (That's the Way of the World) are major successes on both the rhythm and blues and pop music charts. Parliament's Mothership Connection is a funk milestone, introducing "new approaches to varying moods, textures and timbres that symbolize... concepts of heterogeneity and spontaneity in black cultural expression.”

Gospel music increases its influence. Aretha Franklin made numerous gospel albums, and Edwin Reuben Hawkins was one of the greatest gospel artists of the 20th century. Sallie Martin was the Mother of Gospel music. Clara Mae Ward was another legendary gospel artist who changed the world in many positive ways. Clara Ward was part of the Ward singers, and she was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. There is also the growth of punk rock. The Wiz had music with an all-black cast being an example of the further growth of musicals shown by black Americans. The Wiz play had Stephanie Mills, and the movie version of the Wiz had Michael Jackson including Diana Ross. The Jackson Five was a powerhouse of talent throughout the 1970's and beyond as well. In 1976, music continues to grow and then Elvis Presley died in 1977. Bee Gees release their music. By 1978, the emcee increases its role in hip hop just like the DJ. Sony introduced the Walkman in 1978. It helps to make a portable cassette player more accessible for fans of music. Blondie in 1979 has the first video album with Eat to the Beat. After an effort led by Kenneth Gamble, President Jimmy Carter designated June National Black Music Month. Berry appears at the White House at the first official celebration of the month by 1979.

Disco

The music of disco was created in America, but its influence is global. It has been invented by the late 1960’s and grew into a higher level by the 1970’s. Disco existed as an alternative to rock music, and it is the music of the people. It was accessible, popular, and it broke down barriers. It helped to popularize dances like the Bump and the Hustle. Disco has four on the floor beats. Its basslines are syncopated. It has horn, an electric piano, synthesizers, and electric rhythm guitars. Many of the famous disco artists are Donna Summer, the Bee Gees, Gloria Gaynor, Freda Payne, Gap Band, Bonnie Pointer, Carol Douglas, Joni Sledge, The Jackson 5, Chic, etc. Movies like Saturday Night Fever in 1977 described the power of disco. Studio 54 in New York City had people among all walks of life including celebrities where they danced, had fun, and were involved in other activities. There was a drug subculture in the disco atmosphere were some folks used cocaine and Quaaludes. Disco clubs had sexual promiscuity as common place as a reflection of the sexual revolution. The baby boom generation accelerated the growth of disco. To this very day, disco is a key influential foundation of modern pop, house, and electronic dance music.

Disco comes from the French word of discotheque or the “library of phonograph records.” That term has been used as for nightclubs in Paris. New York City is considered the birthplace of disco. NYC has been home to many progressive movements. By the 1960’s, America saw the Civil Rights Movement, rebellions, assassinations, the Vietnam War, etc. By the 1970’s, there was the feminist movement, other social movements, and a new demographic shift in America. In New York City, there was white flight and more immigrants coming into NYC who were Asians, Latinos, and Black Afro-Caribbeans. The city struggled because of a surplus of unskilled workers, but no jobs available for them to fill. Dindustrialization came bout in NYC including other large cities, and service jobs replaced industrial jobs. In Philadelphia, R&B musicians and audiences from the Black, Italian, and Latino communities adopted several traits from the hippie and psychedelia subcultures. They included using music venues with a loud, overwhelming sound, free-form dancing, trippy lighting, colorful costumes, and the use of hallucinogen drugs. Sly and the Family Stone influenced proto-disco acts just like Isaac Hayes, Willie Hutch, and the Philadelphia soul sound.

This is the disco group Chic. Chic's music is ahead of its time and still influences music today. 

Early songs with disco elements include "You Keep Me Hangin' On" by the Supremes, (1966), "Soul Makossa" by Manu Dibango, (1972), "Superstition" by Stevie Wonder (1972), "Keep on Truckin'" by Eddie Kendricks (1973) and "The Love I Lost" by Harold Melvin and the Blue Notes (1973). Also "Love Train" by the O'Jays (1972), with M.F.S.B. as the backup band, topped the Billboard pop chart in March 1973, and has been called "disco." Disco music reached the mainstream by 1974. Barry White and the Three Degrees had their music in full display. Italian compose Giorgio Moroder has used disco sounds as well. The Hues Corporation's 1974 "Rock the Boat", a US number-one single and million-seller, was one of the early disco songs to reach number one. The same year saw the release of "Kung Fu Fighting", performed by Carl Douglas and produced by Biddu, which reached number one in both the UK and US, and became the best-selling single of the year  and one of the best-selling singles of all time with eleven million records sold worldwide, helping to popularize disco to a great extent.

Gloria Gaynor used disco records too. She made the song of “I Will Survive.” She was born in Newark, New Jersey. Later, she has displayed Christian music. Van McCoy’s 1975’s “The Hustle” and Labelle’s music increased disco’s power. KC and the Sunshine Band from Miami shown disco anthem like That’s the Way, Keep It Comin’ Love, etc. Donna Summer was an excellent singer and made songs that made some call her the Queen of Disco. In 1977, Donna Summer, Moroder and Bellotte further released "I Feel Love", as the B side of "Can't We Just Sit Down (And Talk It Over)", which combined Disco with its subgenre Hi-NRG and electronic music. It was a massive worldwide success. Donna Summer made MacArthur Park in 1978. Le Chic made disco music too. Le Chic was ahead of its time with its beats, guitar playing, and sound. Many of their early songs can be released today and have great support. Diverse artists like Sylvester, the Bee Gees, the Village People, the Jackson Five, and other artists made contributions in disco music. Disco was popular as a means for escape from rising crime, the scandals, and the economic problems of the 1970’s.

Also, the disco movement was a way for many people of diverse backgrounds to have tolerance, and increase respect of their human dignity. It is no secret that disco was supported heavily by Black Americans, Latino Americans, members of the LBGTQIA+ community, Italian Americans, and other Americans plus people worldwide. The backlash against disco came from some rock fans heavily. They felt that disco was consumerist and too escapist. They were ultimately jealous of disco. Also, many haters of disco were racists, sexists, xenophobes, and many were homophobic. On July 12, 1979, in Chicago, people burned disco records at the Comiskey Park. There was a riot and the police made arrests. After that, disco temporarily lost popularity. Of the handful of groups not taken down by disco's fall from favor, Kool and the Gang, Donna Summer, the Jacksons—and Michael Jackson in particular—stand out. In spite of having helped define the disco sound early on, they or many artists continued to make popular and danceable, if more refined, songs for yet another generation of music fans in the 1980's and beyond.

Earth, Wind and Fire also survived the disco backlash and continued to produce successful singles at roughly the same pace for several more years, in addition to an even longer string of R&B chart hits that lasted into the 1990's. However, disco music remained relatively successful in the early 1980's, with songs like Irene Cara's "Flashdance... What a Feeling", Michael Jackson's "Thriller", K.C. and the Sunshine Band's last major single, "Give It Up", and Madonna's first album had strong disco influences. In the 1990's and in the 21st century, disco and its legacy became more accepted by music artists and listeners alike, as more songs and films were released that referenced disco. Examples of songs during this time that were influenced by disco included Deee-Lite's "Groove Is in the Heart" (1990), U2's "Lemon" (1993), Blur's "Girls & Boys" (1994) plus "Entertain Me" (1995), Pulp's "Disco 2000" (1995), and Jamiroquai's "Canned Heat" (1999). There are films such as Boogie Nights (1997) and The Last Days of Disco (1998) that featured primarily disco soundtracks. Disco influenced songs continue to thrive in the 21st century.

The Birth of Hip Hop

Hip hop is an American musical, cultural art form. It was created in the Bronx, NYC by 1973 by Kool Herc. Hip hop uses DJs, lyrics, sound machines, and other instruments. Hip hop is made up of many elements like graffiti, beatboxing, fashion, and rapping. Bronx, NYC by the 1970’s experienced deindustrialization, blackouts, neglect, gangs, violence, and poverty. Hip hop artists back then wanted to advance a sense of belonging among their communities. Hip hop combines the sampling of old school tracks with the lyrical content of the environments of urban areas, etc. Hip hop has been influenced by the blues, jazz, ragtime, funk, and disco. Keith Wiggins of the Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five coined the term hip hop. DJ Clive “Kool Herc” Campbell was born in Jamaica. He used DJing as a means to promote hip hop in his high rise apartment at 1520 Sedgwick Avenue. On August 11, 1973 DJ Kool Herc was the DJ at his sister's back-to-school party. He extended the beat of a record by using two record players, isolating the percussion "breaks" by using a mixer to switch between the two records. Herc's experiments with making music with record players became what we now know as breaking or "scratching." Early hip hop had the DJ and the MC (master of ceremonies) urging the crowd and telling jokes. As early as 1925, Earl Tucker did breakdancing. Even in 1965, Muhammad Ali rhymed in a record to predict his victory over Sonny Liston. The song called, “Here Comes the Judge” by Pigmeat Markham in 1968 had rhymes. During the 1940’s and 1950’s, black Americans did similar rhymes too. There is an old video of the The Jubalaires - The Preacher And The Bear in 1941 showing a rhyme scene too. Throughout human history there were griots and speech makers giving voice to their concerns in lyrical power.

By the early 1970’s, the Lost Poets used spoken words which was one large precursor to modern hip hop. By 1974, DJ Kool Herc, Grandmaster Caz, Grandmaster Flash, and Afrika Bambaataa played hip hop at block parties in the Bronx. Coke La Rock used rhymes in 1975. DJ Grand Wizard Theodore accidentally invented the scratch in 1975. In 1977, The Rock Steady Crew (the most respected b-boy crew in history) is formed by the original four members: JoJo, Jimmy Dee, Easy Mike, and P-Body. In 1978, Kurtis Blow hired Run from Run DMC as his DJ. Kurtis Blow was the first rapper signed to a major record deal in 1978 and this was the time when emcees had a greater focus. Grandmaster Caz had battles too. Early hip hop had innovators who were Latinos too. In 1979, Grandmaster Flash formed one of the most influential rap groups ever, The Furious 5: Grandmaster Flash (Joseph Saddler), Melle Mel (Melvin Glover), Kidd Creole (Nathaniel Glover), Cowboy (Keith Wiggins), Raheim (Guy Williams), and Mr. Ness (Eddie Morris). Around the same time, another great rap crew – The Cold Crush Four – was formed, comprising of Charlie Chase, Tony Tone, Grand Master Caz, Easy Ad, JDL, and Almighty KG.

Sugarhill Gang’s “Rapper's Delight” would go on to become the first known, mainstream rap hit, reaching #36 on Billboard in 1979. Kurtis Blow released Christmas Rappin on Mercury Records back in 1979. Grandmaster Flash and the Furious 5 had music. The first hip hop radio show on WHBI was Mr. Magic’s Rap Attack. Kurtis Blow appeared on Soul Train to perform The Breaks. It sold more than one million copies. Rapture from Blondie had Fab 5 Freddy. Debbie Harry sang. Hip hop grew into more heights by 1980.

The Election of 1980


The election of 1980 was one of the most important elections in American history. It was an election of change when the conservative movement finally reached the White House with their own leader of Ronald Reagan. Ronald Reagan was once a New Deal Democrat, and then he became a conservative Republican by the 1950’s. Back during the 1960's, he opposed Medicare and falsely accused it of being a precursor to socialized medicine. He defended Barry Goldwater’s 1964 Presidential campaign and was the Governor of California. He ran for President in 1968 and in 1976. His 1976 campaign almost won him the Republican nomination. The 1970’s had issues of low economic growth, high inflation, high interest rates, and an energy crisis. On July 15, 1979, Carter gave a nationally televised address in which he identified what he believed to be a "crisis of confidence" among the American people. This came to be known as his "malaise" speech, although Carter never used the word in the speech. The Democrats were divided. President Jimmy Carter by 1980 was unpopular and Edward Kennedy ran against him during the Democratic primaries. In the Democratic primary, President Jimmy Carter faced Senator Ted Kennedy of Massachusetts, Governor Jerry Brown of California, and others. Ted Kennedy and Jimmy Carter were leaders in the primary. Their campaigns were bitter against each other. After defeating Kennedy in 24 of 34 primaries, Carter entered the party's convention in New York in August with 60 percent of the delegates pledged to him on the first ballot. Still, Kennedy refused to drop out. At the convention, after a futile last-ditch attempt by Edward Kennedy to alter the rules to free delegates from their first-ballot pledges, Carter was re-nominated with 2,129 votes to 1,146 for Kennedy. Vice President Walter Mondale was also re-nominated. In his acceptance speech, President Jimmy Carter warned that Reagan's conservatism posed a threat to world peace and progressive social welfare programs from the New Deal to the Great Society. Edward Kennedy gave a historic, powerful, "The Dream Shall Never Die" speech at the Democratic convention too. In that speech, Edward Kennedy defended liberalism as a philosophy and as a way of life:

"...Among you, my golden friends across this land, I have listened and learned. I have listened to Kenny Dubois, a glassblower in Charleston, West Virginia, who has ten children to support but has lost his job after 35 years, just three years short of qualifying for his pension. I have listened to the Trachta family who farm in Iowa and who wonder whether they can pass the good life and the good earth on to their children. I have listened to the grandmother in East Oakland who no longer has a phone to call her grandchildren because she gave it up to pay the rent on her small apartment. I have listened to young workers out of work, to students without the tuition for college, and to families without the chance to own a home. I have seen the closed factories and the stalled assembly lines of Anderson, Indiana and South Gate, California, and I have seen too many, far too many idle men and women desperate to work. I have seen too many, far too many working families desperate to protect the value of their wages from the ravages of inflation...For me, a few hours ago, this campaign came to an end. For all those whose cares have been our concern, the work goes on, the cause endures, the hope still lives, and the dream shall never die..."

The Republican primary had many men who ran like George H. W. Bush, John B. Anderson, Phil Crane, Bob Dole, John Connally, Howard Baker, Larry Pressler, Lowell P. Weicker Jr., Harold Stassen, and Ben Fernandez. Ronald Reagan easily defeated most of the field in the primary. His strongest challenge was from the former CIA Director George H. W. Bush. Bush won the Michigan and Pennsylvania primaries, but he didn’t have enough votes to win. In that time, Reagan was famous for giving the words of "I am paying for this microphone, Mr. Green." Reagan defeated George H. W. Bush of Texas, John B. Anderson of Illinois, and other candidates to win the Republican nomination. Anderson later entered the race as an independent candidate with the Democratic Wisconsin Governor Patrick Lucey as his running mate. Reagan won the nomination on the first round at the 1980 Republican National Convention in Detroit, Michigan, in July, and then chose George H. W. Bush, his top rival, as his running mate. Ronald Reagan campaigned for more defense spending, supply side economics, and a balanced budget. Carter said that Reagan was a right wing extremist who would cut Medicare and Social Security. John Anderson portrayed himself as a moderate Republican as an alternative to Reagan’s conservatism. He wanted to gain anti-Carter voters. The Libertarian Party nominated Ed Clark for President and David Koch for Vice President. They received almost one million votes and were on the ballot in all 50 states plus Washington, D.C. Koch, a co-owner of Koch Industries, pledged part of his personal fortune to the campaign.  Carter saw high unemployment, high inflation, and the Iran hostage crisis. Jimmy Carter ran with his running mate Walter Mondale.  In August, after the Republican National Convention, Ronald Reagan gave a campaign speech at the annual Neshoba County Fair on the outskirts of Philadelphia, Mississippi, where three civil rights workers were murdered in 1964.

Ronald Reagan was the first presidential candidate ever to campaign at the fair. Reagan famously announced, "Programs like education and others should be turned back to the states and local communities with the tax sources to fund them. I believe in states' rights. I believe in people doing as much as they can at the community level and the private level.” Reagan’s Southern Strategy approach was racist and disrespectful, and it worked to convinced many voters to align with him. The truth is that there is nothing wrong with federal programs helping humanity. Reagan later claimed that he wanted civil rights enforcement by using economic zones to help with urban renewal (when he talked to the Urban League in NYC). The problem is that urban renewal doesn’t work and economic zones are slick privatized entities meant to benefit select corporations not the masses of the people. Reagan made gaffes too like falsely claiming that trees caused pollution. The debate of Reagan and Carter was important and highly watched. Reagan talking about if people were better off four years ago caused his poll numbers to increase among registered voters (from trailing Carter to leading). Leon Jaworski and Eugene McCarty endorsed Reagan plus the NRA. Reagan was born in Tampico, Illinois in 1911. The election between Reagan and Carter was close until the only debate among the two men.

The vast majority of the African American community opposed Ronald Reagan, because of his far right views, his hostility to the social safety net, and his appeals to racists overtly in trying to get votes from them. A small number of black conservatives and neoconservatives supported the Reagan campaign back then like Thomas Sowell, Dr. Nathan Wright (who was a conservative Black Power advocate), Walter E. Williams, and others. Even Ralph Abernathy supported Reagan in 1980 and then he rejected his support by 1984 (because of his record on civil rights and the economy). Mrs. Coretta Scott King took a firm stand against Reagan on ideological grounds. The NAACP and black establishment groups readily wanted Carter to be re-elected.

These are some of the reasons for the Ronald Reagan landslide. Reagan won 50.7 percent of the popular vote.  Reagan received the highest number of electoral votes ever won by a non-incumbent presidential candidate. In the simultaneous Congressional elections, Republicans won control of the United States Senate for the first time since 1955. Carter won 41% of the vote but carried just six states and Washington, D.C. Anderson won 6.6% of the popular vote, and he performed best among liberal Republican voters dissatisfied with Reagan. John Anderson found the most support in New England, fueled by liberal and moderate Republicans who felt Reagan was too far to the right and with voters who normally leaned Democratic but were dissatisfied with the policies of the Carter Administration. Reagan, then 69, was the oldest person to ever be elected president until Donald Trump's victory in 2016, who was 70. Carter and Reagan were Christians, but Jerry Falwell’s Moral Majority lobbying group used their influence to cause Reagan to win two-thirds of the white evangelical vote. The election of 1980 showed the new electoral power of the Sun Belt and suburbs. Parties became more polarized. Many liberal Republicans and conservative Democrats either left parties or changed party affiliations. Carter’s own aides criticized him for not making an alternative economic plan when people knew of Reagan’s conservative economic plans. Carter’s moderate views and mixed record contributed to his defeat in 1980. The irony is that after President Carter lost the 1980 election, Carter would be more progressive and further became an active participant in many causes to help humanity (from Habitat for Humanity and to helping human rights causes). The Republicans in 1980 dropped their once support of the ERA. The election of 1980 realigned many realities in America. Reaganism devastated many communities of America including the black community. 1980 was the beginning of not only right wing extremism further running amok in America. It also signaled a wake-up call for progressive forces that you can’t take anything for granted.

Appendix A: The Culture of the 1970's


The culture of the 1970’s was all about free expression and radically changing television. People wore bell bottoms, bikinis, and designer suits. Many Brothers and Sisters wore Afros. Some were in clubs to celebrate disco or rock music. Also, audiences loved the ballads of soul, funk, and R&B music too. Hip hop was in its infancy. Television started to change. The 1970’s in America brought the first time when explicit content and explicit political issues were shown in widespread shows constantly. All in the Family was released on January 12, 1971. It featured confrontations between the conservative Archie Bunker (played by Carroll O’Connor, who was a liberal in real life) and his liberal son-in law Michael Stivic (played by Rob Reiner. We already know that Rob Reiner is a liberal in real life). Jean Stapleton played Edith Bunker and Sally Struthers placed Gloria Stivic. The show had language that was taboo, and it tackled issues like abortion, censorship, swingers, the Vietnam War, race, sex, marriage, religion, anti-Semitism, infidelity, miscarriages, menopause, rape, impotence, homosexuality, breast cancer, women’s liberation, divorce, etc. The show was nearly cancelled because of its language. Yet, Norman Lear and Bud Yorkin (both producers of the show) fought to allow it to stay on the air as part of the First Amendment. Good Times, the Jeffersons, and Sanford and Son, and other shows outlined the diversity of the African American experience during the 1970’s. Good Times presented a strong black father and a strong black mother raising black children in a poor neighbhorhood at Chicago.

The Blaxploitation movie cultural revolution was abundant during the 1970's. I saw many of such films when I was a child during the 1990's. Foxy Brown, Shaft, Coffy, and other films showed our confidence, our activism, and our strength. Blaxploitation movies have a complex legacy filled with great concepts and legitimate critiques from people. Sister Tamara Dobson played Cleopatra Jones in the movie series that showed a strong black woman stopping crime. I saw both movies of Cleopatra Jones too. The movie Cleopatra Jones was written and produced by the African American actor Max Julien.

Women were prominently shown not only as secondary players, but leading actresses in TV shows like The Mary Tyler Moore show which premiered on September 19, 1970. Monday Night Football was shown on September 21, 1970 with hosts like Howard Cosell, Keith Jackson, and Frank Gifford. PBS shown new shows like Sesame Street, Mister Rogers’ Neighborhood, etc. Coca Cola shown commercials promoting unity. In 1971, the United States ban radio and television cigarette advertisements. The Flip Wilson Shown, the Sonny and Cher Comedy Hour, and other variety shows were common place until the late 1970’s. MASH won awards and described the life of the Korean War atmosphere. Maude, School House Rock, and other shows described the diversity of 1970’s culture. In 1975, Bill Gates found Microsoft, which in time would dominate the home computer operation system market. In 1976, Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne found Apple Inc. People celebrated the Bicentennial in 1976. The first home personal computer called Commodore PET was released for retail sale. Not to mention that Roots expanded American genealogical research.

Roots was the story of Alex Haley who traced his ancestry back to Kunte Kinte on his mother’s side of his family. Alex Haley's parents were Simon Haley and Bertha G. Palmer. Bertha G. Palmer's parents were William Edward Palmer (1872-1926) and Cynthia Lea Babica Murray (1875-1949). Cynthia's parents were Tom Lea Murray (1833-1903) and Irene Holt (1841-1908). Tom Lea Murray's parents were George Lea (1806-1890) and Matilda McGregor Murray (1806-1878). George Lea's parents were Tom Lea (1786-1845) and Kizzy Waller (1790-1860). Kizzy Waller's parents were Kunta Kinte (1750-1830) and Belle Waller (1747-1788). Kunta Kinte's parents were Omoro Kinte (1720-1780) and Binta Kebba (1725-?). Omoro Kinte's parents were Kairaba Kunte Kinte (1690-1770) and Yaisa Kinte (1700-?). On Alex Haley's father side, his parents were Simon Haley (1892-1973) and Bertha G. Palmer (1897-1932). Simon Haley's parents were Alec Haley (1845-1918) and Queen Haley (1858-1941). Alec Haley's parents were William H. Baugh (1820-1895) and Sabrina Viney 'Mullins" (1816-1870). Roots was a miniseries that was emotion and powerful. It made African Americans more inspired to study our roots or ancestry. Roots showed beatings, migrations, and the resiliency of black American people whose ancestors came from Africa originally. It won many Awards and has been praised to this very day.

Health Information Part 7

Health is always valuable for the Universe. How we eat and how we exercise determine many factors of our longevity (as documented by lengthy studies). Not to mention that no one should be arrogant about their health. In other words, nobody should be disrespected or maligned because of his or her physical appearance either. Regardless of one’s fitness level, all human beings have equal value. All people are created equal and are entitled to the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Over the course of 10 years, I have certainly taken my health very seriously. I did perform a health exam, an eye exam, and I do exercise. I eat more fruits and vegetables in my daily life than 15 years ago. Over the course of 20 years, I have learned so much information various fruits including other forms of foods. I also want to acknowledge the unsung doctors, fitness experts, and other individuals who are doing yeoman's work in saving lives. They are real heroes on this endeavor of building up the well beings of so many people. Improving oneself should never be about egoism or disrespecting people. It is about blessing yourself and blessing other people. At the end of the day, we desire fellow people to reach their greatest potentials as human beings.

As the course of many years, health care news are abundant. We witness the debates on universal health care which has been talked about by many Democratic Presidential candidates plus many social activists. We have two people now who are cured of HIV. Constant devices monitor blood pressure, glucose levels, and other indicators of our health. We have the wide spectrum of machines and other devices that improve the quality of life of so many individuals. With all these advances, we have to always remember our responsibility to altruism. Our lives shouldn't be about ourselves alone. We are born here to do the work and to sacrifice our time in enriching the lives of others. That lesson is exemplified by the continued water crisis in Flint. The people of Flint, Michigan deserve clean water, a strong infrastructure, and economic justice. We are all part of one human family, and we ought to always act like it by word plus by deed. The Internet, social media, books, and scholars have grown research about health now beyond any other time in human history. During this time, research (from scientists, sociologists, and other experts) is ever constant to document powerful ways on how to improve our health and to exercise to benefit people in a multiplicity of ways. Additionally, it is important to know about our organs. The reason is that the organs and other systems of the human body are on the front lines to fight diseases and any other illnesses. Not to mention that the knowledge of these items reflect a greater appreciation of health information in general. In life, you have to express faith. Faith along with just action will cause monumental achievements among the realms of our existence.

The Cardiovascular system

One of the most important parts of the human body is the cardiovascular system or the circulatory system. It governs our heart, helps our blood, and it is the literally lifeline of our human existence. It is the organ system that allows blood to circulate and transport nutrients (like amino acids and electrolytes), oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from the cells in the body. This system allows the body to receive nourishment plus help to fight disease, stabilize temperature including pH, and maintain homeostasis. The cardiovascular system deals with the lymphatic system too as that system circulates lymph. The passage of lymph for example takes much longer than of blood. Blood is a fluid. It has plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets that are circulated by the heart though the vertebrate vascular system. It carries oxygen and nutrients to body tissues and waste materials away from all body tissues. Lymph is recycled exceeds blood plasma after it has been filtered from the interstitial fluid (between cells) and returned to the lymphatic system. The cardiovascular (from Latin words meaning "heart" and "vessel") system comprises the blood, heart, and blood vessels. The lymph, lymph nodes, and lymph vessels form the lymphatic system, which returns filtered blood plasma from the interstitial fluid (between cells) as lymph.

The circulatory system of the blood is seen as having two components, a systemic circulation and a pulmonary circulation. Humans are vertebrates with a closed cardiovascular system. That means that blood never leaves the network of arteries, veins, and capillaries. Some invertebrates have an open cardiovascular system. The lymphatic system has an open system with a route for excess interstitial fluid to be returned to the blood. The diploblastic animal phyla lack circulatory systems. Many diseases affect the circulatory system. This includes cardiovascular disease, affecting the cardiovascular system, and lymphatic disease affecting the lymphatic system. Cardiologists are medical professionals who specialize in the heart, and cardiothoracic surgeons specialize in operating on the heart and its surrounding areas. Vascular surgeons focus on other parts of the circulatory system.

The human cardiovascular system includes the heart, blood, and blood vessels. There is the pulmonary circulation or a loop through the lungs where blood is oxygenated. Later, circulation follows a loop through the rest of the body to provide oxygenated blood. There are macrocirculation and microcirculation. An average adult has five to six quarts or 4.7 to 5.7 liters of blood. Blood represents about 7 percent of total body adult weight. Blood consists of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Also, the system works with the circulatory system to provide the nutrients the system needs to keep the heart pumping. The cardiovascular systems of humans are closed, meaning that the blood never leaves the network of blood vessels. In contrast, oxygen and nutrients diffuse across the blood vessel layers and enter interstitial fluid, which carries oxygen and nutrients to the target cells, and carbon dioxide and wastes in the opposite direction. The other component of the circulatory system, the lymphatic system, is open. Blood travels by leaving the left atrium and the left ventricle to the rest of the body via arteries. Then, that blood travels from parts of the body via veins to the right atrium, the right ventricle, to the pulmonary artery and the pulmonary vein. Then, the cycle starts all over again. Oxygenated blood entered the circulation when leaving the left ventricle, through the aortic semilunar valve. The first part of the systemic circulation is the aorta, a massive and thick-walled artery. The aorta arches and gives branches supplying the upper part of the body after passing through the aortic opening of the diaphragm at the level of thoracic ten vertebras, it enters the abdomen.

Later it descends down and supplies branches to abdomen, pelvis, perineum and the lower limbs. The walls of aorta are elastic. This elasticity helps to maintain the pressure throughout the body. When the aorta receives almost five liters of blood from the heart, it recoils and is responsible for pulsating blood pressure. Moreover, as aorta branches into smaller arteries, their elasticity goes on decreasing and their compliance goes on increasing. Arteries branch into small passages called arterioles and then into the capillaries. The capillaries merge to bring blood into the venous system. After their passage through body tissues, capillaries merge once again into venules, which continue to merge into veins. The venous system finally coalesces into two major veins: the superior vena cava (roughly speaking draining the areas above the heart) and the inferior vena cava (roughly speaking from areas below the heart). These two great vessels empty into the right atrium of the heart. The heart is filled with oxygen and nutrients too and it has coronary circulation. The general rule is that arteries from the heart branch out into capillaries, which collect into veins leading back to the heart. Portal veins are a slight exception to this. In humans, the only significant example is the hepatic portal vein which combines from capillaries around the tract where the blood absorbs the various products of digestion; rather than leading directly back to the heart, the hepatic portal vein branches into a second capillary system in the liver.

The heart pumps oxygenated blood to the body and deoxygenated blood to the lungs. The human heart has one atrium and one ventricle for each circulation. It has the following four chambers: left atrium, left ventricle, right atrium, and right ventricle. The right atrium is the upper chamber of the right side of the heart. The blood that is returned to the right atrium is deoxygenated (poor in oxygen) and passed into the right ventricle to be pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs for re-oxygenation and removal of carbon dioxide. The left atrium receives newly oxygenated blood from the lungs as well as the pulmonary vein which is passed into the strong left ventricle to be pumped through the aorta to the different organs of the body. Blood helps the brain and the kidneys. The circulatory system develops in the embryo. Veins show during weeks 4-8 of embryogenesis. Helping the cardiovascular system is key in building up our health. Ancient Egyptians, ancient Muslim scholars, ancient Romans, Michael Servetus, and others studied the circulatory system among the thousands of years of human history.

The Respiratory System

The respiratory system is very important to know and study. It is made up of organs used for gas exchange. It includes lungs and small air sacs called alveoli. They are call atria in birds. The alveoli have strong blood supply. These air sacs communicate with the external environment via a system of airways, or hollow tubes, of which the largest is the trachea, which branches in the middle of the chest into the two main bronchi. These enter the lungs where they branch into progressively narrower secondary and tertiary bronchi that branch into numerous smaller tubes, the bronchioles. In birds, the bronchioles are termed parabronchi. It is the bronchioles, or parabronchi that generally open into the microscopic alveoli in mammals and atria in birds. Air has to be pumped from the environment into the alveoli or atria by the process of breathing which involves the muscles of respiration. The respiratory system has the naval cavity, the pharynx (or near the throat). The larynx is found on inside of the neck. The tube next to the lungs is called the trachea. It has branches holding up the two lungs in the body. The lungs are surrounded by bronchial tubes. Therefore, the upper tract includes the nose, nasal cavities, sinuses, pharynx and the part of the larynx above the vocal folds. The lower tract  includes the lower part of the larynx, the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and the alveoli. The respiratory tree has the trachea, mainstem bronchus, labor bronchus, segmental bronchus, bronchiole, alveolar duct, and the alveolus. Lungs expand and contact during the breathing cycle.  The primary function of the respiratory system is to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide. Inhaled oxygen enters the lungs and reaches the alveoli. Oxygen passes quickly through this air-blood barrier into the blood in the capillaries. Similarly, carbon dioxide passes from the blood into the alveoli and is then exhaled.

The Nervous System

The nervous system is one of the most important parts of the human body. It helps to transmit signals to and from different parts of the body. It has many jobs. It can detect environmental changes that impact the body. It works with the endocrine system to respond to these events. Vertebrates have two major parts of the nervous system. One is the central nervous system or the CNS. The other part is the peripheral nervous system of PNS. The CNS is made up of the brain and spinal cord. The PNS is mainly made up of nerves. Nerves are enclosed bundles of long fibers or axons that link to the CNS and to every other part of the human body. Nerves that transmit signals from the brain are called motor or efferent nerves, while those nerves that transmit information from the body to the CNS are called sensory or afferent. Spinal nerves serve both functions and are called mixed nerves. The PNS is divided into three separate subsystems, the somatic, autonomic, andenteric nervous systems. Somatic nerves mediate voluntary movement. The autonomic nervous system is further subdivided into the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system is activated in cases of emergencies to mobilize energy, while the parasympathetic nervous system is activated when organisms are in a relaxed state. The enteric nervous system functions to control the gastrointestinal system. Both autonomic and enteric nervous systems function involuntarily. Nerves that exit from the cranium are called cranial nerves while those exiting from the spinal cord are called spinal nerves.

The nervous system has cells. The type of cell in that system is called the neuron or nerve cell. Neurons have structures to allow them to send signals quickly and precisely to other cells. They send these signals in the form of electrochemical waves traveling along thin fibers called axons, which cause chemicals called neurotransmitters to be released at junctions called synapses. A cell that receives a synaptic signal from a neuron may be excited, inhibited, or otherwise modulated. The connections between neurons can form neural pathways, neural circuits, and larger networks that generate an organism's perception of the world and determine its behavior. Along with neurons, the nervous system contains other specialized cells called glial cells (or simply glia), which provide structural and metabolic support. The nervous system is found in most multicellular animals. They are diverse. Sponges, placozoans, and mesozoans have very small body plans and have no nervous systems. The central nervous system gives signals from one cell to another from one part of the body to others. They receive feedback too. Malfunction of the nervous system can exist by physical damage, genetic issues, infection, or aging. Neurology is a medical subject that constantly studies the nervous system and finds ways to treat and help those with nervous system issues. Multiple sclerosis and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis are disorders involving nervous system issues.

The nervous system has nerves or cylindrical bundles of fibers. Nerves were known by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. The microscope helped researchers to examine them. A microscopic examination shows that nerves consist primarily of axons, along with different membranes that wrap around them and segregate them into fascicles. The neurons that give rise to nerves do not lie entirely within the nerves themselves—their cell bodies reside within the brain, spinal cord, or peripheral ganglia. A neuron has a nucleus, the soma, and the dendrite. They are linked with the axon, the myelin sheath, the Schwann cell, the node of the ranvier, and the axon terminal. Synapses are membrane to membrane junctions having molecular machinery that allows for rapid transmission of signals, either electrical or chemical. The axon is a protrusion that extends in the body. Glial cells are non-neuronal cells that give support, nutrition, maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and work in the signal transmission of the nervous system. The Bhuman brain has many glias.  Recent findings indicate that glial cells, such as microglia and astrocytes, serve as important resident immune cells within the central nervous system. The CNS is made up of the brain and the spinal cord. Nerve signals can travel over 100 meters per second. The nervous system helps to control the body. In a synaptic transmission, a wave goes into the axon of the neuron. When it reaches a synapse, it caused a small amount of neurotransmitter molecules to go into the receptor of the target cell. Synapses may be electrical or chemical. The nervous system deals with the skin and muscles. Learning about the nervous system is key to learn about our lives in general.

Human Biology


In life, we learn new things constantly. Even after I’m 35 years old, I continue to learn new facts about the human body and genetics. Controlling muscular hypertrophy is done by myostatin proteins. Age, height, weight, genetics, sex, and training can determine how much muscular hypertrophy a person can experience.  Muscle hypertrophy is a term for the growth and increase of the size of muscle cells. Hypertrophy happens as a product of physical exercise like weightlifting. Examples of increased muscle hypertrophy are seen in various professional sports, mainly strength related sports such as boxing, Olympic weightlifting, mixed martial arts, rugby, professional wrestling and various forms of gymnastics. Increased muscle hypertrophy can be found in athletes who do basketball, baseball, ice hockey, and soccer (i.e. a center in basketball can be bigger to overpower opponents). This is achieved by cardiovascular and muscular endurance training. A human being is a product of both nature and nurture, so using both in performing great exercise output is important. Both men and women can increase their physical fitness capacity via training. Some people have myostatin deficiency. Muscles are made up of bundles, fascicle, muscle fiber, muscle cells, and other components like the myofibril. Many genes are associated with muscular strength and functioning like ACTG1, PEX14, TGFA, and SYT1. All of this relates to DNA. DNA is found in the human cell nucleus. The human embryo has 46 chromosomes. A chromosome has double stained DNA. DNA is held by four chemical called bases. They are adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine. DNA is made up of a double helix too. DNA forms chromosomes in the cell nucleus. Section of DNA form genes. Genes act as directors for proteins. Exercise, nutrition, and supplements can improve the human body.

In the 21st century, we live in a new time. The average life expectancy worldwide has increased via medicine, surgery, and health science especially after World War II. Men (on average) tend to weigh more and have greater muscle mass than women. Men (on average) have 40–60 percent greater upper-body strength and 25–30 percent more lower-body strength. However, with training and nutritional guidance on par with men’s, female power lifters, for example, have narrowed the gap in actual strength to between 0 and 8 percent.

There have even been studies where women’s lower-body strength used in performing leg-presses has exceeded that of men. Males weigh about 15% more than females, on average. For those older than 20 years of age, men in the US have an average weight of 86.1 kg (190 lbs.), whereas women have an average weight of 74 kg (163 lbs.). On average, men are taller than women, by about 15 cm (6 inches). American men who are 20 years old or older have an average height of 176.8 cm (5 ft. 10 in). The average height of corresponding American women is 162 cm (5 ft. 4 in). Women have a larger hip section than men, an adaptation for giving birth to infants with large skulls. Women show higher performance levels on tests of verbal fluency. This may be because the female auditory cortex is denser than that of the male. This difference and other sensory differences like it could be because of the sex hormones that impact the fetal brain during development. Some studies have shown that women have a more sensitive sense of smell than males, both in the differentiation of odors, and in the detection of slight or faint odors. Sex is determined by biology like gamete size, genital morphology, and the presence of absence of a Y chromosome including sex hormone levels. Gender deals with social roles based on the sex of a person or personal identification of one’s own gender. There are similarities among men and women too. Both are human beings, we have the same hormones (with variations of hormone levels and patterns in each human), and we all have equal value as persons living on this Earth.

Inspiration involving Fitness

For millennia, fitness has been part of the human race. We have either walked around in the world, played sports, swam, or did some other type of basic, physical activities in our lives. Times have changed over the course of thousands of years. We witness fitness apps, programs that deal with ploymetrics, and new ways of working on core exercises. The culture of exercise is a global phenomenon. In our time, more people are accepting of people among the diversity of physical appearances. While the evils of body shaming and disrespect for unjust reasons unfortunately are common internationally. That is why the self-esteem movement is important. It builds up self-confidence among people and it is a way where unsung people can live their greatest lives. We have a new generation of fitness heroes who show compassion towards people, strength, wisdom, and love for the work of exercising in general. Their names are: Elisabeth Akinwale, Jessamyn Stanley, Traci Copeland, Selena Watkins, Tamara Pridgett, Massy Arias, Hannah Bronfman, Latoya Shauntay, Lauren Williams, Serena Williams, Sasha Exeter, Rachael Weathers, Bree Branker, Jeannette Jenkins, Roz Mays, Natasha Hastings, Lita Lewis, Sloane Stephens, Misty Copeland, Ally Love, Lana Ector, Ellen Ector, Cece Olisa, Alicia Archer, Allyson Felix, Jennifer Nash Forrester, and other people globally.

One of the greatest inspirational people involving exercise and resiliency is Sister Ernestine Shepherd. She is now 82 years old and looks very young. At one time, she was the oldest woman bodybuilder in the world as declared by the Guinness Book of World Records in 2010. She was born on June 16, 1936 and lives in Baltimore. Her sister, Mildred Blackwell, was an exercise expert too. Her sister competed in bodybuilding under the name of Velvet and Ernestine followed under the name of Ernie. Her sister died in 1992 after a brain aneurysm. Later, Ernestine has been involved in fitness in her memory. She has run many marathons and won titles. She also helps seniors at the Union Memorial United Methodist Church at Baltimore. As a personal trainer, she loves to help people. She published a book, Determined, Dedicated, Disciplined to Be Fit, in 2016. She runs about 80 miles a weeks. She eats vegetables, chicken, boiled egg whites, and other foods. She has bench-pressed 150 lb. and do 80 lbs. in the pull down machines. Ernestine Shepherd is married to the same man named Colin Shepherd for 61 years. She does weightlifting and is a spiritual woman.

When thinking about fitness, there can be debates and discussions. Yet, as a person living for over 35 years on this Earth, life has taught me about the valuable lessons and wisdom about true fitness growth. These lessons are:

1). Drink plenty of water
2). Ally with a Great Support system
3). Get advice from experts
4). Treat your Neighbors as yourself
5). Eat plenty of healthy foods including great fruits and vegetables (plus get vitamins and minerals)
6). Use strength building workouts
7). Use cardio
8). Never give up and keep your eyes on the prize.

Epilogue

For the thousands of years of human history, people have learned about health and related matters. We know that the human body is a delicate living organism with complex systems, functions, and thrives on nutrition plus other chemicals. Over the course of many decades in the world, there is a greater acceptance of people being involved in fitness culture, especially women. We know that strength doesn’t discount femininity as femininity is diverse at its core. Also, encouraging children, men, and women to pursue excellence is a key part of living life. We reject hurting people emotionally as self-esteem development is our aim. In recent years, there has been an increase of DNA research and genetic testing to find our ancestors or connect with close or distant relatives. I have found many of my distant cousins as a product of using Ancestry.com and 23 and me. This new time certainly makes aware how interconnected we are as human beings. Many of the products that we buy originated from other countries. Also, other countries love and sometimes mimic American culture too. It is always key to know understand about vitamins and minerals.

One of the greatest forms of advice in the world is to never give up. There are constant stories of paraplegics and those with severe injuries going into space, having children, inventing products, using complex devices, and enriching the Universe in enumerable ways. That fact alone should give anyone suffering the motivation to continue in the journey of life. There are plenty of folks going through the exact same tribulations. We are not alone for our lives are interconnected with each other. Trade and international communication have made the world smaller in terms of commerce and social developments. Likewise, we have the right to use our imagination and our creativity to desire happiness. Happiness is not something that can't be forced upon anyone. It has to voluntarily come. Happiness ultimately is felling joy in doing something that you love to do. Therefore, we have the right to embrace love and embrace truth.

Foods with massive antioxidants that can help clear skin, fight cancer, and develop the immune system are here in the world. These foods are strawberries, carrots, blueberries, grapes, red berries, nuts, dark green vegetables (like broccoli and spinach plus kale), sweet potatoes, green tea, whole grains, black beans, kidney beans, and fish (with omega-3 fatty acids. It had vitamin D and it can help reduce the chance of coronary heart disease). The lesson about life to know more wisdom and to help others. Life is never about ourselves completely. We sacrifice in this world in order to make the Universe better. Part of making it better is to be our Brothers’and our Sisters’ keepers. The recent New Zealand attacks (against Muslim people by a murderer) outline to us about how hatred of people has no place in the world. Collective involvement in solution making can make a difference. For example, communities worked together to advance labor rights, civil rights, voting rights, immigration rights, and the development of strong black communities. Therefore, we need to work together as human beings in order to reach the Dream of total human liberation. Learning about health is definitely dynamic and fun, because it gives enriching lessons plus facts on how the body works (including ways to improve upon the physiology of the body in general). This is the end of this decade. For the next decade, I will continue to grow and always place the importance of loving health as of a paramount significance.

By Timothy