Cultural Facts and History.

African American history and culture is made up of dynamic power and an inspirational story. African Americans are mostly of West/Central African descent. The first African Americans are descended from peoples of West Africa who were kidnapped from Africa and sent into the Americas as early as the 1500’s. European imperialists sought out markets and expanded economic exploitation. That is why African slaves were treated like cattle or property. Racism has always existed in human history, but international racism the way that we see it today transpired as a result of the Maafa and American slavery. African Americans were heavily found in the English colonies by the 17th century. Many black people back then were slaves, and some were free. Luisa de Abrego was a black woman in St. Augustine, Florida back in the 1500’s. Black slaves were in the area of South Carolina as early as 1526. In August of 1619, many slaves came into Jamestown which was controlled by British colonists. African Americans suffered whips, rape, family separation, and other injustices as slaves. Free African Americans raised crops, owned cattle, and did other things. In Virginia, there was a transition. By the late 1600’s, African Americans increasingly experienced a more race-based slavery that further harmed the rights of human beings. John Punch was a black Virginian who was enslaved for life. Many black people migrated into Spanish Florida for safety from slavery. It is no secret that back then, many African Americans intermarried with the English, the Spanish, and Native Americans. It is also no secret that many black slaves were victims of rape during the antebellum period. By the 1700’s, race based slavery was very prominent in the British North American colonies. It is important to note that black Americans fought against slavery since the beginning. Our ancestors were battling against racists in Africa, in the ships, in the Americas, and in the world in general for justice.

African Americans were on both sides of the American Revolutionary War seeking freedom and justice. These people were Crispus Attucks, James Armistead, Prince Whipple, and Tye. Slavery was enshrined in the U.S. Constitution. African Americans worked in abolitionist and other liberation movements to fight to end slavery. Harriet Tubman, Sojourner Truth, Frederick Douglas, and others worked hard against slavery. The Union black participation in the U.S. Civil War helped to defeat the Confederacy once and for all. Reconstruction saw new black Congressmen along with the rise of more hate groups like the Klan. After Reconstruction, Jim Crow was further developed with disenfranchisement, violence, and other discriminatory policies. Mary McLeod Bethune, W.E.B. DuBois, and other black leaders like Ida B. Wells opposed racism and lynching. By this time (in the late 19th century and early 20th century), black churches, banks, social clubs, businesses, and other institutions grew. With Red Summer and massive violence, race relations in America back then was terrible. Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896 permitted Jim Crow for decades. The 2 Great Migrations were about black people escaping Southern tyranny, but they found similar racism in the Northern and Western areas of the United States of America. Black people served in every American war too. During the Harlem Renaissance and beyond, black social activists and intellectuals critiqued capitalist America while advancing a call for racial justice like Claude McKay, Langston Hughes, Ralph Ellison, Richard wright, Paul Robeson, Lorraine Hansberry, DuBois, and others. The murder of Emmett Till grew the black freedom movement. The Civil Rights Movement was made of black Americans and people of every color to seek equality and justice. It is important to note that back during Jim Crow, Northern industrialists allied with Southern segregationists in gaining power at the expense of people of every color. From the March on Washington to the Voting Rights Act, victories existed. Yet, we have a long way to go. The Black Power movement wanted economic and political self-sufficiency among black people. It had conservative and progressive factions. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s assassination in 1968 was a turning point in African American history. Dr. King opposed the Vietnam War, rejected imperialism, promoted the Poor People’s Campaign, and wanted billions of dollars from the federal government to address poverty in America. The paradox of after 1968 was that while new black mayors and leaders existed, wealth was heavily transformed to a select few of upper middle class and rich African Americans primarily. The reason is that the capitalist system permitted reforms to some black people but not revolutionary change that would overthrow that exploitative system in general. The post- civil rights era saw legitimate firsts among African Americans and black heroes rising up from Carol Moseley-Braun to other people. By 2008, Barack Obama was the first African American President of the United States of America. Many black people in 2019 have successes and other don’t. That is why we should have African American solidarity along with addressing class related issues that deal with addressing income inequality and wealth disparities in our communities. In our time, the oligarchs (via the military industrial complex) permit the war on terror which resulted in the deaths of millions of people in Iraq, Libya, Yemen, Somalia, Syria, etc.  African Americans are diverse politically, ideologically, religiously, culturally, and socially. Therefore, the beauty and strength of African Americans is that we are diverse yet unified in our black African heritage at the same time.



The first official ball used in volleyball has been disputed. Some believe that Spalding created the first official ball in 1896. Other claimed that it was created in 1900. Over time, rules evolved. In the Philippines, by 1916, the skill and power of the set plus the spike were introduced. Four years later, a  hits rule and a rule against hitting from the back row were formed. In 1917, the game was changed from requiring 21 points to win to a smaller 15 points to win. In 1919, about 16,000 volleyballs were distributed by the American Expeditionary Forces to their troops and allies, which sparked the growth of volleyball in new countries. Canada adopted volleyball in 1900. An international federation, the Fédération Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB), was founded in 1947, and the first World Championships were held in 1949 for men and 1952 for women. The sport is now popular in Brazil, in Europe (where especially Italy, the Netherlands, and countries from Eastern Europe have been major forces since the late 1980s), in Russia, and in other countries including China and the rest of Asia, as well as in the United States. Beach volleyball was a variation of the game. It is played on the sand with only two players per team. It became a FIVB endorsed variation in 1987 and was added to the Olympic program at the 1996 Summer Olympics. Volleyball is also a sport at the Paralympics managed by the World Organization Volleyball for Disabled. Volleyball has been part of the Summer Olympics program for both men and women consistently since 1964. Brazil, United States, and the former Soviet Union, are the only teams to win multiple gold medals at the men's tournament since its introduction. The remaining five editions of the Men's Olympic Volleyball Tournament were won each by a different country including Japan, Poland, Netherlands, Russia and the defunct Yugoslavia. Gold medals are less evenly distributed in women's volleyball than in men's; the fourteen editions of the Women's Olympic Volleyball Tournament were won by only five different countries: Brazil, Cuba, China, Japan and the former Soviet Union. In the 2016 Olympics for men, Brazil won gold, Italy won silver, and the United States won bronze. For the women in the 2016 Olympics, China won gold, Serbia won silver, and the United States won the bronze medal.



It is important to note that after the U.S. Civil War, there was a fight for labor rights. During the Gilded Age, large corporations permitted child labor, environmental pollution, lax wages, and other injustices that motivated workers of many colors to unite and fight for economic justice. John Brown, Harriet Tubman, Thaddeus Stevens, and other leaders risked their lives in the cause of freedom. The Great Railroad strike of 1877, the Homestead Steel Strike of 1892, and the Great Steel Strike of 1919 outlined the working class struggle for liberation. Also, it is fine to confront racism. Racism is deeply embedded in the history of America then and now. Therefore, we have to address racism, class oppression, and any injustice if we are to be free for real.



Robert Mugabe recently passed away at the age of 95 years old. He was a longtime Zimbabwe President for a number of years. He was the first elected leader of Zimbabwe.  Zimbabwe freed itself from colonialism and imperialism many decades ago. Mugabe was involved in the African anticolonial struggles against colonialists and imperialists. He lived after the passing of well-known independence leaders like Nkrumah of Ghana, Sekou of Guinea, Kenyatta of Kenya, Nyerere of Tanzania, Machel of Mozambique, and Mandela of South Africa. It is important to realize that bourgeois systems of government are inadequate to address the need for democracy, social justice, and being free from unjust domination. Mugabe was ousted from power in November 2017 by a coup led by his longtime ally Emmerson Mnangagwa. We send prayers and condolences to Robert Mugabe’s friends and family. While acknowledging his errors, now it is the time to reflect on his life fairly without disrespect. The West had a mixed relationship with him. At times, the West supported him, and at other times, the West criticized him harshly. Mugabe was a rich man. He had many business interests. Wikileaks released information that Mugabe’s total assists are at $1.75 billion. Robert Mugabe was born poor, and he was a young teacher. He was part of the African National Congress. He was a member of the South African Communist Party. He moved into Ghana by the late 1960’s. Back then, British leaders controlled Zimbabwe. They call the land Rhodesia. The situation was about growing nationalist sentiments and the white ruling class’ opposition to ending colonialization. Mugabe was part of the Zimbabwe African National Union 9ZANU). Mugabe wanted armed struggle to end British colonialism. Mugabe was arrested and released in 1974. Later, Mugabe used guerilla warfare to free his people in Zimbabwe. The Shona people, the Ndebele people, and other ethnic groups united to liberate Zimbabwe. The massacre of people in Matabeleland or the base of the ZAPU caused at least 20,000 people to die. Mugabe made mistakes and did the right thing to promote welfare actions along with health plus educational reforms. The IMF cut off funding to Zimbabwe during the 1990’s, since it wanted Zimbabwe to embrace privatization, and foreign investments. Mugabe allowed seizures of white owned farms. Zimbabwe was against being punished by the IMF, since the IMF wanted Mugabe to bow to its will. Many Western governments accused Mugabe of being an autocrat. The situation is that many nationalist regimes dealt with overt world imperialism on one side and the revolutionary legitimate aspirations of the working class plus the oppressed on the other side. Mnangagwa wanted more liberal investment and trade policies with Beijing’s support. Therefore, he supported the coup against Robert Mugabe as a means to make business moves. The problem is that Mnangagwe used troops to kill demonstrators, arrested thousands of people, and mass inflation plus mass unemployment continued. Robert Mugabe was sincere and showed courage in ending imperialist rule in Zimbabwe many decades ago. He didn’t achieve his aims because of outside influences from the West and many working class people (and other people in Zimbabwe) were suppressed of their rights. Political independence in rejecting bourgeois nationalism and Western imperialism is always important. So, we mourn his death. Robert Mugabe was a man with his imperfections and his great contributions was an iconic historic human being. Like always,we believe in black liberation and Pan-African unity.



She was a genius playwright whose works inspired the minds of so many people. She was an African American scholar who not only wrote about defending the rights of black people. She was a social activist who stood up for justice. As a writer, she consumed her life with typewriters, ideals, friends, and dealing with diverse experiences. As time goes on, we know much more about her life and journey. Her name was Lorraine Vivian Hansberry, and she lived from 1930 to 1965. As a child of Chicago, she knew of the urban streets and the working class experiences of African Americans. The story of Lorraine Hansberry highlights the story of one courageous woman who created massive cultural legacies that we study to this very day. As a stage director, she wanted excellence involving plays. Her famous play was A Raisin in the Sun. She was always young, gifted, and black. She dealt with W.E.B. DuBois and Paul Robeson. She was a lifelong friend of Nina Simone (who was a great activist in her own right). Also, she loved life, and she loved people. The great intellectual power of Lorraine Hansberry stirs up our imagination, and it never ceases to amaze all of us.



By Timothy