Winter 2020 Part 2

 

Volleyball



This is one of the most popular sports in the world. It is very accessible from beaches to gyms across the world. It's a sport that teaches us about strategy and human togetherness. In America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and other areas of the globe, men, women, and children play it all of the time. The sport is volleyball, and it is a sport that relates to teamwork, strength, and skill. In this game, two teams seek the same goal which is victory. It has been part of the Summer Olympics since 1964 in Tokyo. Since 1895, it has been played. Legends are part of the sport too like Alejandrina Mireya Luis Hernandez, Tara Battle Cross, Paula Weishoff, and Lori Endicott. Volleyball requires the development of the human physical body in a myriad of ways. It can strengthen the upper body, arms, and shoulders. It definitely deals with building up the thighs and lower legs. The cardiovascular and respirator systems are strengthened as a product of playing volleyball as well. Science has already documented that improved circulation in the body helps to spread more blood, oxygen, and nutrients all over the body. That can improve the body’s functions and grow the overall health of a human being. Volleyball requires hand eye coordination, reflexes, etc. The bones and joints are developed further as a product of volleyball too. Therefore, volleyball is an excellent athletic sport that is here to stay. Its components and contributions to athletics should always be honored and respected forever and ever.

Rules and Players

An international sport that deals with competition, teamwork, and other forms of fair play describes volleyball. Volleyball is played among 2 teams of six players. The separation of the net is common. The team with the most scores wins the game. It was created by 1895. It has been part of the Summer Olympic Games since 1964 at Tokyo. Volleyball deals with strategy too. Many players on the team are strong on offensive or defense. Some are great strikers while others were great blockers. The rules of the game are very important. A player on one of the teams starts a rally by serving the ball. The ball can be tossed or released. Then, someone hit it with hand of arm from behind the back boundary line of the court, over the net, and into the receiving team’s court. The receiving team must not let the ball be grounded within their court. The team may touch the ball up to 3 times, but individual players may not touch the ball twice consecutively. Typically, the first two touches are used to set up for an attack, an attempt to direct the ball back over the net in such a way that the serving team is unable to prevent it from being grounded in their court. The rally continues, with each team allowed as many as three consecutive touches, until either (1): a team makes a kill, grounding the ball on the opponent's court and winning the rally; or (2): a team commits a fault and loses the rally. The team that wins the rally is awarded a point and serves the ball to start the next rally.

History

Volleyball has a long history. During the winter of 1895, in Holyoke, Massachusetts, William G. Morgan created a new game. He was a YMCA physical education director. His new game was called Mintonette. This name is derived from the game of badminton. This pastime was to be played indoors by any number of players. It took some of the characteristics from tennis and handball. Mintonette was created as an indoor sport. At the same time, basketball was created in the city of Springfield, Massachusetts. Mintonette was created with rules by William G. Morgan. The rules called for a net that was 6 ft. 6 in. (1.98 m) high, a 25 ft. × 50 ft. (7.6 m × 15.2 m) court, and any number of players. A match was composed of nine innings with three serves for each team in each inning, and no limit to the number of ball contacts for each team before sending the ball to the opponents' court. In case of a serving error, a second try was allowed. Hitting the ball into the net was considered a foul (with loss of the point or a side-out)—except in the case of the first-try serve. After an observer, Alfred Halstead, noticed the volleying nature of the game at its first exhibition match in 1896, played at the International YMCA Training School (now called Springfield College), the game quickly became known as volleyball (it was originally spelled as two words: "volley ball"). Volleyball rules were slightly modified by the International YMCA Training School and the game spread around the country to various YMCAs.

Legendary Players

It is also important to recognize volleyball playing legends. Karch Kiraly is a coach of volleyball, and he was a great player in the sport. He broadcast the sport in the 1980's. He won gold medals from the sport of volleyball in 1984 at Los Angeles, 1988 at Seoul, and in Atlanta in 1996 for beach volleyball.  He is the only player (man or woman) to have won Olympic gold medals in both the indoor and beach volleyball categories. He played college volleyball for the UCLA Bruins, where his teams won three national championships under head coach Al Scates. Kiraly is currently the head coach of the United States women's national volleyball team. He grew up in Santa Barbara, California. His father was from Hungary. Kiraly has worked as a broadcaster for ESPN, and provided color commentary for the AVP on NBC broadcasts. Kiraly worked as an analyst for NBC Sports during their coverage of the beach volleyball competition at the 2008 Summer Olympics.  In October 2014, Kiraly coached the Women's National Team to the FIVB World Championship, defeating China in the Gold Medal final. In doing so, Kiraly became the fourth person to win a World Championship gold medal as a player and a coach. During the 2016 Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, Kiraly led the US women to a bronze medal, becoming the fourth player to win medals as player and coach. He is an author too. Gilberto Amauri de Godoy Filho, known as Giba from Brazil is another legendary volleyball player. He was once an outside hitter.  For much of the 2000s, he was widely regarded as one of the best volleyball players in the world.

During his professional career he played in Brazil, Italy, Russia, Argentina and briefly in the United Arab Emirates. He is mostly remembered for his successes with the national team. He won many gold medals in the Olympics, World Championships, World Cup, World Grand Champions Cup, and other events. He won gold in 2004 at Athens, silver at Beijing in 2008, and at London with silver in 2012. He is retired now since 2014. He has won many awards like FIVB World League Most Valuable Player, etc.  Lang Ping was a Chinese former women volleyball player. She coaches the China women's national volleyball team. She is of Manchu descent. She won Olympic gold in the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics. She won many World Championships. The Afro-Cuban volleyball woman player  Alejandrina Mireya Luis Hernández, often referred to as Mireya was an outstanding player. She is retired now. She and her Cuban team won gold in Barcelona in 1992, Atlanta in 1996, and Sydney in 2000. She won FIVB World Championships, FIVB World Cups, World Grand Champions Cups, etc. Luis is known for her spectacular jumping power reaching 3.39 meters, more than any other player, though being only 1.75 meter tall. She earned numerous "best scorer", "best spiker" and "best player" awards at world, Olympic and continental championships.  Mireya had a totally legendary career.

Conclusion


For a long time, people in gyms and beaches worldwide have played this sport. Many folks have worked in international tournaments to figure who is the best volleyball team in the world. Men, women, and children participate in it. It’s an egalitarian sport, because it is based on teamwork and working as a unit to create a victory. Many health benefits relate to volleyball as well. It can burn fat and calories. It can build up and tone muscles. The reason is that movement involved in playing volleyball will strengthen the upper body, arms, shoulders, and thighs plus lower legs. The repertory and cardiovascular systems are made better by the more circulation of blood, oxygen, and nutrients all over the body, the better the body’s functions (or overall health) will be.  It can improve mental health. Also, the sport of volleyball by definition will build up coordination, balance, and speed. Its aerobic activity can make heart health stronger as well. Stamina and flexibility can be enhanced definitely by the sport of volleyball. Playing volleyball for 45 minutes regularly is beneficial for any human being. Volleyball can cause more social connections among human beings (like growing friendships) as well. Therefore, the great sport of volleyball remains a further iconic means of self-expression.

Automobiles (Part 1)

From transportation to aesthetics, vehicles make our world more interesting. All of us have either driven a vehicle before, seen one, or traveled in one before. Billions of people live on this Earth, and we have many interests in our diverse, complicated lives. From the 19th century to the modern era of the 21st century, cars changed the cultures of the world. It was part of the era of modernization. It broke down barriers to allow people to travel into many areas in a short span of time. Once upon a time, cars ran mostly on gasoline, natural gas, or diesel. Today, cars can run on electrical power, hydrogen, solar, and vegetable oil. There are even self-propelled cars today. Insurance, computerized devices, and car repair shops deal with vehicle issues all of the time. One of the greatest joys in the world is to drive a car to a great destination where you can relax and have fun. From the modern car in 1886, which was created by German inventor Karl Benz, to the futuristic cars of the 21st century, people of every age are fans of them. The irony is that cars are more complex with lighting and other devices, but they are easier to drive today than back in the day. The balance is that we enjoy cars and we use policies that help maintain roads, land use, and regulate congestion at the same time. About one billion cars are in use worldwide.

The Early Era

The history of automobiles consists of a long one. Vehicles have existed for centuries. Even thousands of years ago, there were wagons and chariots that looked similar to automobiles later on. This history is divided into different eras. They are times when the use of propulsion was different during the early days of vehicle usage and the later period defined by styling, size, and utility preferences. Back centuries ago, people wanted to find a reliable portable power unit to propel the vehicle. Back then, there were steam powered wheeled vehicles. Ferdinand Verbiest was a member of a Jesuit mission in China. He built a steam powered vehicle around 1672. He created it as a toy for the Kangxi Emperor. It was in a small scale and could not carry a driver. It could possibly be the first working steam powered vehicle (or automobile). Steam-powered self-propelled vehicles large enough to transport people and cargo were first devised in the late 18th century. Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot demonstrated his fardier à vapeur ("steam dray"), an experimental steam-driven artillery tractor, in 1770 and 1771. As Cugnot's design proved to be impractical, his invention was not developed in his native France. The center of innovation shifted to Great Britain.

By 1784, William Murdoch had built a working model of a steam carriage in Redruth, and in 1801 Richard Trevithick was running a full-sized vehicle on the roads in Camborne. The first automobile patent in the United States was granted to Oliver Evans in 1789. By the 1800’s, times changed. Some people tried to make steam powered vehicles more accessible with hard breaks, multispeed transmissions, and better steering came about. Some vehicles were commercially successful until the backlash against large vehicles came about. The United Kingdom in 1865 passed the Locomotive Act that required many self-propelled vehicles on public roads to be preceded by a man on foot waving a red flag and blowing a horn.  This effectively halted road auto development in the UK for most of the rest of the 19th century; inventors and engineers shifted their efforts to improvements in railway locomotives. The law was not repealed until 1896, although the need for the red flag was removed in 1878.

The Change



In 1816, a professor at Prague Polytechic named Josef Bozek created an oil fired steam car. Walter Hancock (a builder and operator of London steam buses) in 1838 built a 2 seated car phaeton. In 1867, Canadian jeweler Henry Seth Taylor demonstrated his 4 wheeled steam buggy at the Stanstead Fair in Stanstead, Quebec, and again the following year. The basis of the buggy was a high wheeled carriage with bracing to support a two cylinder steam engine mounted on the floor. He started to build it in 1865. One of the first modern day automobiles was produced in 1873 by Frenchman Amedee Boliee in Le Mans, who built the self-propelled steam road vehicles to transport groups of passengers.  The first carriage-sized automobile suitable for use on existing wagon roads in the United States was a steam-powered vehicle invented in 1871 by Dr. J.W. Carhart, a minister of the Methodist Episcopal Church, in Racine, Wisconsin. As a result, the device induced the state of Wisconsin in 1875 offered a $10,000 award to the first to produce a practical substitute for the use of horses and other animals. They wanted the machines to go faster than 5 miles per hour over a 200 mile course. The offer led to the first city to city automobile race in America. It started on July 16, 1878 in Green Bay, Wisconsin and ending in Madison, Wisconsin via Appleton, Oshkosh, Waupun, Watertown, Fort Atkinson, and Janesville. Seven vehicles only registered. Two of them started to compete. The entrees came from Green Bay and Oshkosh. The vehicle from Green Bay was faster, but it broke down before completing the race. The Oshkosh finished the 201-mile (323 km) course in 33 hours and 27 minutes, and posted an average speed of six miles per hour. In 1879, the legislature awarded half the prize. By 1828, Anyos Jedlik (who was a Hungarian man) invented an early electric motor. It powered a car. By 1834, the Bermont blacksmith Thomas Davenport invented the first American DC electric motor. He installed his motor in a small model car which he operated on a short circular track. In 1835, Professor Sibrandus Stratingh of Groningen, the Netherlands and his assistant Christopher Becker created a small-scale electrical car, powered by non-rechargeable primary cells. In 1838, Scotsman Robert Davidson built an electric locomotive that attained a speed of 4 miles per hour (6 km/h). In England, a patent was granted in 1840 for the use of tracks as conductors of electric current, and similar American patents were issued to Lilley and Colten in 1847.

Sources point to different creations as the first electric car. Between 1832 and 1839 (the exact year is uncertain), Robert Anderson of Scotland invented a crude electric carriage, powered by non-rechargeable primary cells. In November 1881, French inventor Gustave Trouvé demonstrated a working three-wheeled car powered by electricity at the International Exposition of Electricity, Paris. English inventor Thomas Parker, who was responsible for innovations such as electrifying the London Underground, overhead tramways in Liverpool and Birmingham, and the smokeless fuel coalite, built the first production electric car in London in 1884, using his own specially designed high-capacity rechargeable batteries. Some believe that the Flocken Elektrowagen of 1888 by the German inventor Andreas Flocken invented the first, true electric car. Electric cars were popular in the late 19th century and early 20th century. Electricity was used for automobiles a lot. Gasoline cars were limited back then. This changed with the advances in the internal combustion technology. Companies like the Food Motor Company used gasoline cars with more range, quicker refueling times, and a growing petroleum infrastructure (along with the mass production of gasoline vehicles) to advance more cars.

Electric cars started to decline. They were nearly gone in the 1930’s. Electric cars made a huge comeback by the 1990’s and the 21st century because of the environmental impact of gasoline cars, higher gasoline prices, improvements in battery technology, and debates about peak oil. Early attempts at making and using internal combustion engines were hampered by the lack of suitable fuels, particularly liquids, therefore the earliest engines used gas mixtures. Many early experiments used gases. That is why by 1806, the Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an engine powered by the internal combustion of a hydrogen and oxygen mixture. In 1826, the Englishman Samuel Brown tested his hydrogen fueled internal combustion engine by using it to propel a vehicle up Shooter’s Hill in south-east London. The Belgian born Etienne Lenoir’s Hippomobile with a hydrogen gas fueled one cylinder internal combustion engine made a test drive from Paris to Jonville le Pont in 1860. It covered 9 km. in about 3 hours. A later version used coal gas. A Delamare-Deboutteville vehicle was patented and trialed in 1884.

About 1870, in Vienna, Austria (then the Austro-Hungarian Empire), inventor Siegfried Marcus put a liquid-fueled internal combustion engine on a simple handcart which made him the first man to propel a vehicle by means of gasoline. Today, this car is known as "the first Marcus car." In 1883, Marcus secured a German patent for a low-voltage ignition system of the magneto type; this was his only automotive patent. This design was used for all further engines, and the four-seat "second Marcus car" of 1888/89. This ignition, in conjunction with the "rotating-brush carburetor", made the second car's design very innovative. His second car is on display at the Technical Museum in Vienna. During his lifetime, he was honored as the originator of the motorcar but his place in history was all but erased by the Nazis during World War II. Because Marcus was of Jewish descent, the Nazi propaganda office ordered his work to be destroyed, his name expunged from future textbooks, and his public memorials removed, giving credit instead to Karl Benz. Many people acknowledge that that the first really practical automobiles with petrol/gasoline-powered internal combustion engines were completed almost simultaneously by several German inventors working independently: Karl Benz built his first automobile in 1885 in Mannheim. Benz was granted a patent for his automobile on January 29, 1886, and began the first production of automobiles in 1888, after Bertha Benz, his wife, had proved – with the first long-distance trip in August 1888, from Mannheim to Pforzheim and back – that the horseless coach was capable of extended travel. Since 2008, a Bertha Benz Memorial Route commemorates this event.

Soon after, Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Stuttgart in 1889 designed a vehicle from scratch to be an automobile, rather than a horse-drawn carriage fitted with an engine. They also are usually credited with invention of the first motorcycle in 1886, but Italy's Enrico Bernardi of the University of Padua, in 1882, patented a 0.024 horsepower (17.9 W) 122 cc (7.4 cu in) one-cylinder petrol motor, fitting it into his son's tricycle, making it at least a candidate for the first automobile and first motorcycle;. Bernardi enlarged the tricycle in 1892 to carry two adults.

The first four-wheeled petrol-driven automobile in Britain was built in Walthamstow by Frederick Bremer in 1892. Another was made in Birmingham in 1895 by Frederick William Lanchester, who also patented the disc brake. The first electric starter was installed on an Arnold, an adaptation of the Benz Velo, built in Kent between 1895 and 1898. George F. Foss of Sherbrooke, Quebec built a single-cylinder gasoline car in 1896 which he drove for 4 years, ignoring city officials' warnings of arrest for his "mad antics.” In all the turmoil, many early pioneers are nearly forgotten. In 1891, John William Lambert built a three-wheeler in Ohio City, Ohio, which was destroyed in a fire the same year, while Henry Nadig constructed a four-wheeler in Allentown, Pennsylvania. It is likely they were not the only ones.

Innovations

A new car era came about by the late 19th and early 20th century. The American George B. Selden filed for a patent on May 8, 1879. His application included the engine and the 4 wheeled car.  Selden filed a series of amendments to his application which stretched out the legal process. This resulted in a delay of 16 years before the patent did more to hinder than encourage development of autos in the United States. Selden licensed his patent to most major American automakers, collecting a fee on every car they produced. The first production of automobiles was done by Karl Benz in 1886 at Germany. It was under license in France by Emile Roger. There were numerous others including tricycle builders Rudolf Egg, Edward Butler, and Leon Bolee. Bollée, using a 650 cc (40 cu in) engine of his own design, enabled his driver, Jamin, to average 45 kilometres per hour (28.0 mph) in the 1897 Paris-Tourville rally. By 1900, mass production of automobiles had begun in France and the United States. The first company that was created to build automobiles exclusively was Panhard et Levassor in France. It introduced the first four cylinder engine. It was formed in 1889. Panhard et Levassor was quickly followed by Puegeot 2 years later. By the start of the 20th century, the automobile industry started to take off in Western Europe. 30,204 cars were produced in the region by 1903. This represented 48.8% of the world automobile production in that year. In America, brothers Charles and Frank Duryea created the Duryea Motor Wagon Company in 1893. This was the first automobile manufacturing company. The Autocar Company was created in 1897 with innovations still in use. It remains the oldest operation motor vehicle manufacturer in the Untied States. Yet, it was Ransom E. Olds and his Olds Motor Vehicle Company (or called Oldsmobile later) that dominated that era with the introduction of the Oldsmobile Curved Dash. It was on its own production line in 1901. The Thomas B. Jeffrey Company formed the world’s second mass mass-produced automobile, and 1,500 Ramblers were built and sold in its first year, representing one-sixth of all existing motorcars in the United States at the time. Within a year, Cadillac (formed from the Henry Ford Company), Winton, and Ford were also producing cars in the thousands. The Studebaker brothers, having become the world's leading manufacturers of horse-drawn vehicles, made a transition to electric automobiles in 1902, and gasoline engines in 1904. They continued to build horse-drawn vehicles until 1919.
The first motor in Central Europe was produced by the Austrian-Hungarian company called  Nesselsdorfer Wagenbau (later renamed to Tatra in today's Czech Republic) in 1897, the Präsident automobile. In 1898, Louis Renault had the De Dion-Bouton modified, with fixed drive shaft and differential making it the first possible hot rod in history.

Renault and his brothers were part of the car industry. There was massive innovation during the early 1900’s. There were changes in basic vehicle architecture, body styles, and controls. Many veteran cars used a tiller instead of a wheel for steering. By 1903, Rambler standardized on the steering wheel. It moved the drive’s position to the left hand side of the vehicle. Chain drive was dominant over the drive shaft, and closed bodies were extremely rare. Renault introduced drum brakes in 1902. In 1903, the Dutch designer Jacobus Spijker built the first four wheel drive racing car. It was never competed, and it would be 1965 and the Jensen FF before four wheel drive was used on a production car. After a few years, new technologies were used by hundreds of producers worldwide. Steam, electricity, and petrol gasoline powered cars competed for decades. By the 1910’s, petrol/gasoline and international combustion engines were dominant in the car industry.  Dual- and even quad-engine cars were designed, and engine displacement ranged to more than a dozen liters. Many modern advances, including gas/electric hybrids, multi-valve engines, overhead camshafts, and four-wheel drive, were attempted, and discarded at this time. The oil industry grew including the gasoline industry. They replaced coal oil, kerosene, vegetable and animal oils. Music was used in car culture. The veteran era has cars introduced as novelties not in a high level of usage by the public yet. Car breakdown was common.

Fuel was difficult to get. Major breakthroughs in proving the usefulness of the automobile came with the historic long-distance drive of Bertha Benz in 1888, when she traveled more than 80 kilometres (50 mi) from Mannheim to Pforzheim, to make people aware of the potential of the vehicles her husband, Karl Benz, manufactured, and after Horatio Nelson Jackson's successful transcontinental drive across the United States in 1903. Lots of older cars made were made with an assembly line which would help mass produce cars which some company's still use today because it's more efficient. The Brass or Edwardian era lasted form 1905 to 1918. Many vehicles used brass. It was filled with experimentation. The Stanley Steamer ran over 120 mph. Panhard et Levassor's Système Panhard was widely licensed and adopted that recognizable and standardized automobiles were created. This system specified front-engined, rear-wheel drive internal combustion engined cars with a sliding gear transmission. Traditional coach-style vehicles were rapidly abandoned, and buckboard runabouts lost favor with the introduction of tonneaus and other less-expensive touring bodies. The Model T was in existence. The ignition system was popularized. Key developments included the electric ignition system (by dynamotor on the Arnold in 1898, though Robert Bosch, 1903, tends to get the credit), independent suspension (actually conceived by Bollée in 1873). and four-wheel brakes (by the Arrol-Johnston Company of Scotland in 1909). Leaf springs were widely used for suspension, though many other systems were still in use, with angle steel taking over from armored wood as the frame material of choice. Transmissions and throttle controls were widely adopted, allowing a variety of cruising speeds, though vehicles generally still had discrete speed settings, rather than the infinitely variable system familiar in cars of later eras. Safety glass also made its debut, patented by John Wood in England in 1905. (It would not become standard equipment until 1926, on a Rickenbacker). Car companies in America, Europe, and Japan like the Mitsubishi Model A made by Mitsubishi.

The Vintage era lasted from 1918 (or the end of World War II) to the end of 1929 (with the Wall Street crash). This era saw cars like the 1926 Bugatti Type 35, the 1929 Austin Seven, and the 1929 Alfo Romeo 6C. This time saw the front engine car dominating society and standardized controls being the norm. In 1919, 90% of cars sold were open and by 1929, 90% were closed. Rapidly, there was the development of the internal combustion engine. There were multi-valve and overhead camshaft engines were produced at the high end. This time saw V8, V12, and even V16 engines. They were used by mostly the super rich.  Also in 1919, hydraulic brakes were invented by Malcolm Loughead (co-founder of Lockheed); they were adopted by Duesenberg for their 1921 Model A. Three years later, Hermann Rieseler of Vulcan Motor invented the first automatic transmission, which had two-speed planetary gearbox, torque converter, and lockup clutch; it never entered production. (It would only become an available option in 1940). Just at the end of the vintage era, tempered glass (now standard equipment in side windows) was invented in France.

The revolutionary ponton design of cars with lenders, running boards, and other non compact ledge elements was created. Mass production of these cars started after WWII. American auto companies in the 1920s expected they would soon sell six million cars a year, but did not do so until 1955. Numerous companies disappeared. Between 1922 and 1925, the number of U.S. passenger car builders decreased from 175 to 70. H. A. Tarantous, managing editor of "MoToR Member Society of Automotive Engineers", in a New York Times article from 1925, suggested many were unable to raise production and cope with falling prices (due to assembly line production), especially for low-priced cars. The new pyroxylin-based paints, eight cylinder engine, four wheel brakes, and balloon tires as the biggest trends for 1925. The prewar era of cars was from 1930 to after World War II. This time saw saloon or sedan body styles. There was runabouts, phaetons, and touring cars. There was the front wheel drive being introduced by Andre Citroen. In the same vein, independent suspension was originally conceived by Amédée Bollée in 1873, but not put in production until appearing on the low-volume Mercedes-Benz 380 in 1933, which prodded American makers to use it more widely. In 1930, the number of auto manufacturers declined sharply as the industry consolidated and matured, thanks in part to the effects of the Great Depression.

New Designs

After World War II, the change in automobile design was apparent. There was the popularization of the ponton style. This was when running boards were gone and fenders were incorporated into the body.  Some of the early examples of this style were the Soviet GAZ-M20 Pobeda (1946), British Standard Vanguard (1947), United States Studebaker Champion and Kaiser (1946), as well as the low-production Czech luxury Tatra T600 Tatraplan (1946) and the Italian Cisitalia 220 sports car (1947). New innovations about automobile design and production came about in 1949. America saw the introduction of high compression V8 engines and modern bodies from General Motors Oldsmobile and Cadillac brands. Hudson introduced the step down design with the 1948 Commodore. That placed the passenger compartment down inside the perimeter of the frame that was one of the first new design postwar cars made and feature the trend setting slab side styling. The unibody/strut suspended 1951 Ford Consel joined the 1948 Morris Monitor and 1949 Rover P4 in the automobile market in the United Kingdom. In Italy, Enzo Ferrari was starting his 250 series, just as Lancia introduced the revolutionary V6 Aurelia. During the 1950’s, engine power and vehicle speeds increased. Designs became more integrated and artful. Automobiles were marketed internationally.  Alec Issigonis' Mini and Fiat's 500 diminutive cars were introduced in Europe, while the similar kei car class became popular in Japan. The Volkswagen Beetle continued production after Hitler's evil reign and began exports to other nations, including the United States. At the same time, Nash introduced the Nash Rambler, the first successful modern compact car made in the United States,  while the standard models produced by the "Big Three" domestic automakers grew ever larger in size, featuring increasing amounts of chrome trim, and luxury was exemplified by the Cadillac Eldorado Brougham. The markets in Europe expanded with new small-sized automobiles, as well as expensive grand tourers (GT), like the Ferrari America.

The car market changed a greatly in the 1960’s. The United States “Big three” automakers started to face more competition form imported cars. The European makers adopted advanced technologies, and Japan emerged as a car producing nation. Japanese companies started to export some of their more popular selling cars in Japan internationally. They include the Toyota Corolla, Toyota Corona, Nissan Sunny, and Nissan Bluebird in the mid-1960’s. The success of American Motors’ compact sized Rambler models spurred GM and Ford to introduce their own downsized cars in 1960. The United States saw the focus of marketing in dealing with performance engines. That is why muscle cars became popular. In 1964, the Ford Mustang developed a new market segment of the pony car. New models to compete with the Mustang were the Chevrolet Camaro, AMC Javelin, and Plymouth Barracuda. Captive imports and badge engineering increased in American d the UK as amalgamated groups like British Motor Corporations consolidated the market. BMC’s space saving and trend setting transverse engine front wheel drive, independent suspension, and monocoque bodied Mini, which first appeared in 1959. This was marketed under the Austin and Morris names. Mini was a marque on its own right in 1969. It was marketed under the Austin and Morris names. Competition increased. The Studebaker came about which was a pioneering automaker that was shutting down. There was more consolidation with the Maserati, Ferrari, and Lancia in Italy. They were acquired by larger companies. By the end of the 1960’s, the number of automobile marquees had been reduced.  Technology developments included the widespread use of independent suspensions, wider application of fuel injection, and an increasing focus on safety in automotive design. Innovations during the 1960s included NSU's Wankel engine, the gas turbine, and the turbocharger. Of these, the only the last endured, pioneered by General Motors, and adopted by BMW and Saab, later seeing mass-market use during the 1980s by Chrysler. Mazda continued developing its Wankel engine, in spite of problems in longevity, emissions, and fuel economy. Other Wankel licensees, including Mercedes-Benz and GM, never put their designs into production because of engineering and manufacturing problems, as well as the lessons from the 1973 oil crisis. The 1970’s was a unique decade for cars, because of the 1973 oil crisis, the stricter automobile emissions control, and new safety requirements. So, more exports came by Japanese and European automakers. There was the growth of inflation and the stagnant economic conditions in many nations. Smaller-sized cars grew in popularity. The United States saw the establishment of the subcompact segment with the introduction of the AMC Gremlin, followed by the Chevrolet Vega and Ford Pinto. The station wagons (estate, break, kombi, universal) body design was popular, as well as increasing sales of non-commercial all-wheel drive off-road vehicles.  To the end of the 20th century, the United States Big Three (GM, Ford, and Chrysler) partially lost their leading position, Japan became for a while the world's leader of car production and cars began to be mass manufactured in new Asian, East European, and other countries. This era saw the Porsche, the Subaru 1000, and other designs.

The 21st Century




The modern era of automobile is all about new technologies and new developments. This era has been around for 40 years. Today, cars have standardization platform sharing, computer aided design, etc. to reduce costs and development time. There are more usage of electronics for both engine management and entertainment systems. Some particular contemporary developments are the proliferation of front- and all-wheel drive, the adoption of the diesel engine, and the ubiquity of fuel injection. Most modern passenger cars are front-wheel-drive monocoque or unibody designs, with transversely mounted engines. Body styles have changed as well in the modern era. Three types, the hatchback, sedan, and sport utility vehicle dominate today's market. All originally emphasized practicality, but have mutated into today's high-powered luxury crossover SUV, sports wagon and two-volume Large MPV. The rise of pickup trucks in the United States and SUVs worldwide has changed the face of motoring with these "trucks" coming to command more than half of the world automobile market. There was also the introduction of the MPV class (smaller non-commercial passenger minivans), among the first of which were the French Renault Espace and the Chrysler minivan versions in the United States. More cars now have improved fuel efficiency and engine output. People talk about automobile emission concerns.

There are computerized engine management systems. The financial crisis of 2007–2008 cut almost a third of light vehicle sales from Chrysler, Toyota, Ford, and Nissan. It also subtracted about a fourth of Honda's sales and about a seventh of sales from General Motors. Since 2009, China has become the world's largest car manufacturer with production greater than Japan, the United States, and all of Europe. Besides large growth of car production in Asian and other countries, there has been growth in transnational corporate groups, with the production of transnational automobiles sharing the same platforms as well as badge engineering or re-badging to suit different markets and consumer segments. Since the end of the 20th century, several award competitions for cars and trucks have become widely known, such as European Car of the Year, Car of the Year Japan, North American Car of the Year, World Car of the Year, Truck of the Year, and International Car of the Year. Also, a Car of the Century award was held in which in the US the Ford Model T was named as most influential car of the 20th century. The Telsa Roadster is an example of a modern car being all-electric. The Telsa Model S was a famous plug in electric vehicle. Hybrids are commonplace too.

The Future of Automobiles

The future of the car is developing now. During the 21st century, researchers and engineers are constantly experimenting to develop the best future cars available for human beings. Back in 1901, many people used horses and buggies. Now, in the time of the 21st century, we have new innovations flourishing all over the place. In the future, more cars will have Alexa-like personal assistant systems. In other words, a person is driving, and you can say commands to allow the vehicle to navigate into certain locations. There will be more map options or navigational maps in vehicles. There will be displays of safe routes and other scenic imagery. Custom designed vehicles with 3D printing technology are a reality now, and it will continue in the future. The Arizona based Local Motors is 3D printing cars. They use engines and 3D print cars on top of the engines. Some cars will use brain wave technology to control vehicles. Many future cars will help diagnose their own mechanical problems. The existence of autonomous vehicles will grow too. Ford is trying to use technology to monitor health from the driver’s seat. Ford already has an electrocardiography reads that can monitor heart function via sensors in the seat that don’t need to touch the skin in order to function. In the future, technology can monitor glucose levels of people with diabetes. This technology can help people in the car. Some vehicles have augmented reality dashboards. Later, new cars will have them. These devices can project speed and improve the vision of people. Smart dashboards are the wave of the future.



By Timothy