Learning Lessons from the Past.

 

Theodore Roosevelt was one of the most famous, complex Presidents in history. He had liberal and conservative policies on many issues. He lived from October 27, 1858 to January 6, 1919. He has been a politician, a conservationist, a naturalist, a historian, and a writer. He was the 26th President of the United States from 1901 to 1909. Theodore Roosevelt was the 25th Vice President under William McKinley from March to September 1901. Also, he was the 33rd Governor of New York from 1899 to 1900. He was born in Manhattan, NYC at 28th East 20th Street. As the 2nd of 4 children, Roosevelt lived an interesting life. His parents were Martha Stewart Bulloch and Theodore Roosevelt Sr. He had an older sister (Anna, nicknamed "Bamie"), a younger brother (Elliott) and a younger sister (Corinne). Elliott was later the father of First Lady Anna Eleanor Roosevelt, the wife of Theodore's distant cousin, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. His paternal grandfather was of Dutch descent; his other ancestry included primarily Scottish and Scots-Irish, English and smaller amounts of German, Welsh and French. Theodore Sr. was the fifth son of businessman Cornelius Van Schaack "C. V. S." Roosevelt and Margaret Barnhill as well as a brother of Robert Roosevelt and James A. Roosevelt. Theodore's fourth cousin, James Roosevelt I, who was also a businessman, was the father of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Mittie was the younger daughter of Major James Stephens Bulloch and Martha P. "Patsy" Stewart. Through the Van Schaacks, Roosevelt was a descendant of the Schuyler family. Theodore Roosevelt had issues of asthma as a child. He had so many asthma attacks at night, that he was almost near death. He was energetic too. Making museums of dead animals was part of his childhood activities. He learned taxidermy. He preserved seals, insects, and other species.

 

His father inspired him. His father (Theodore Roosevelt Sr.) was a leader of New York's cultural affairs, and Theodore Roosevelt Sr. helped to found the Metropolitan Museum of Art. His father worked to support the Union during the American Civil War, though his in-laws were Confederate leaders. Roosevelt said, "My father, Theodore Roosevelt, was the best man I ever knew. He combined strength and courage with gentleness, tenderness, and great unselfishness. He would not tolerate in us children selfishness or cruelty, idleness, cowardice, or untruthfulness." Family trips abroad, including tours of Europe in 1869 and 1870, and Egypt in 1872, shaped his cosmopolitan perspective. Teddy Roosevelt kept pace with his father by 1869 when his family were hiking in the Alps. Theodore Roosevelt used fitness exercise to reduce his asthma and bolster his spirit. That is why he had a large regime of exercise. After being beaten up by 2 older boys on a camping trip, he found a boxing coach to teach him how to fight to strengthen his body. When he was six years old, he witnessed the funeral procession of Abraham Lincoln from his grandfather's mansion in Union Square, New York City. He was photographed in the window along with his brother Elliot. This was confirmed by Edith, who was also present. Theodore Roosevelt was homeschooled. He knew about history, geography, French and German. He struggled with mathematics and the classical language. When he entered Harvard College on September 27, 1876, his father advised: "Take care of your morals first, your health next, and finally your studies." His father's sudden death on February 9, 1878, devastated Roosevelt, but he eventually recovered and doubled his activities. 

In Harvard, Roosevelt did well in science, philosophy, and rhetoric courses but continued to struggle in Latin and Greek. He studied biology intently and was already an accomplished naturalist and a published ornithologist. Roosevelt read prodigiously with an almost photographic memory. While at Harvard, Roosevelt participated in rowing and boxing; he was once runner-up in a Harvard boxing tournament. Roosevelt was a member of the Alpha Delta Phi literary society (later the Fly Club), the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity, and the prestigious Porcellian Club; he was also an editor of The Harvard Advocate. In 1880, Roosevelt graduated Phi Beta Kappa (22nd of 177) from Harvard with an A.B. magna cum laude. After his father's death, Roosevelt had inherited $65,000 (equivalent to $1,743,121 in 2020), enough to live off comfortably for the rest of his life. Theodore Roosevelt studied at Columbia Law School. Soon, he joined into politics. He was a famous member of the Republican Party. His love of geography made him an expert of naval history and strategy. Alice Hathaway Lee was his first wife. Their daughter, Alice Lee Roosevelt was born on February 12, 1884. Roosevelt saw his mother and his wife pass away. He never wrote about Alice for the rest of his wife, even in his autobiography. Theodore Roosevelt was elected in the New York State Assembly in 1882, 1883, and in 1884. Roosevelt fought to eliminate corruption in government. His anti-corruption efforts won him great support. He supported Governor Cleveland's efforts to pass a civil reform bill. Theodore Roosevelt supported Senator George F. Edmunds of Vermont for President.

Roosevelt attended the 1884 GOP National Convention in Chicago and gave a speech convincing delegates to nominate African American John R. Lynch, an Edmunds supporter, to be temporary chair. Roosevelt fought alongside the Mugwump reformers; however, Blaine, having gained support from Arthur's and Edmunds's delegates, won the nomination by 541 votes on the fourth ballot. In a crucial moment of his budding political career, Roosevelt resisted the demand of the Mugwumps that he bolt from Blaine. He bragged about his one small success: "We achieved a victory in getting up a combination to beat the Blaine nominee for temporary chairman... To do this needed a mixture of skill, boldness and energy... to get the different factions to come in... to defeat the common foe." After Blaine won the Republican nomination, he lost support of many reformers. He supported Blaine to maintain his presence in the GOP. Teddy Roosevelt moved into North Dakota as a cattle rancher. He hunted bison in 1883. He embraced the western lifestyle. He promoted the cattle business. He lived in New York and Dakota to advance his ranch. After the 1884 Presidential election, Theodore Roosevelt created his ranch named Elkhorn in the city of Medora, North Dakota. He learned to ride western style, rope, and hunt on the Little Missouri. The cowboys respected him but were not overally impressed. He addressed the issue of conservation to perserve resources. His 2nd wife was Edith Kermit Carrow. They married on December 2, 1886, and Edith was his childhood and family friend. The couple married at St. George's, Hanover Square in London, England. Their five children were: Theodore "Ted" III in 1887, Kermit in 1889, Ethel in 1891, Archibald in 1894, and Quentin in 1897. The couple also raised Roosevelt's daughter from his first marriage, Alice, who often clashed with her stepmother. 

Theodore Roosevelt came back into political life in 1886 at New York City. Roosevelt lost his NYC mayoral election to Abram Hewitt (a Democrat. Henry George ran for mayor in NYC too). His book about the west called The Winning of the West was a great success for Teddy Roosevelt. Then, Roosevelt worked on promoting civil service reform. Reforming the police force in NYC was his role as NYC Police Commissioner. Roosevelt implemented regular inspections of firearms and annual physical exams, appointed recruits based on their physical and mental qualifications rather than political affiliation, established Meritorious Service Medals, and closed corrupt police hostelries. During his tenure, a Municipal Lodging House was established by the Board of Charities, and Roosevelt required officers to register with the Board; he also had telephones installed in station houses. The book of How the Other Half Lives exposed poverty among millions of poor immigrants in New York City. This inspired Theodore Roosevelt to be part of the progressive movement. The author of the book was Jacob Riis or the muckraking Evening Sun newspaper. Roosevelt was the Assistant Secretary of the Navy by the late 1800's. Roosevelt wanted to build up the Navy, create battleships, and wanted foreign policy to be studied. Desiring Spain to be ejected from Cuba was his aim. On February 15, 1898, USS Maine, an armored cruiser, exploded in the harbor of Havana, Cuba, killing hundreds of crew members. While Roosevelt and many other Americans blamed Spain for the explosion, McKinley sought a diplomatic solution. War existed between America and Spain. Roosevelt supported this war. Colonel Roosevelt fought in Cuba. His "Rough Riders" trained in San Antonio, Texas for weeks. The Rough Riders won 2 major battles in Cuba. 

 

After Cuba, Theodore Roosevelt was the Governor of New York state. As governor, Roosevelt learned much about ongoing economic issues and political techniques that later proved valuable in his presidency. He was exposed to the problems of trusts, monopolies, labor relations, and conservation. Chessman argues that Roosevelt's program "rested firmly upon the concept of the square deal by a neutral state." The rules for the Square Deal were "honesty in public affairs, an equitable sharing of privilege and responsibility, and subordination of party and local concerns to the interests of the state at large." Teddy Roosevelt taxed public franchises granted by the state and controlled by coproations via the Ford Franchise Tax law. His policies of regulation, mediation of conflicts of capital and labor, and conservation of natural resources helped his Presidential run. After McKinley was President, Teddy Roosevelt was Vice President. On September 2, 1901, Roosevelt first publicized an aphorism that thrilled his supporters: "Speak softly and carry a big stick, and you will go far." After William McKinley was assassinated by anarchist Leon Czolgosz at Buffalo, New York, Roosevelt was President. He was sworn in at Ansley Wilcox House. People were nervous about him, but Roosevelt assured people that he would follow McKinley's policies. Shortly after taking office, Roosevelt invited Booker T. Washington to dinner at the White House. This sparked a bitter, and at times vicious, reaction among whites across the heavily segregated South. Roosevelt reacted with astonishment and protest, saying that he looked forward to many future dinners with Washington. Upon further reflection, Roosevelt wanted to ensure that this had no effect on political support in the white South, and further dinner invitations to Washington were avoided; their next meeting was scheduled as typical business at 10:00 a.m. instead. 

When Roosevelt was President, he promoted trust busting and regulation. He used the Sherman Antitrust Act to fight corruption from big business. Roosevelt viewed big business as part of the American economy, but he wanted to stop bad trusts with unrestrained actions. He broke up many monopolies like the Northern Security Company and regulating Standard Oil. 44 antitrust suits existed under him. Bolstered by his party's winning large majorities in the 1902 elections, Roosevelt proposed the creation of the United States Department of Commerce and Labor, which would include the Bureau of Corporations. While Congress was receptive to the Department of Commerce and Labor, it was more skeptical of the antitrust powers that Roosevelt sought to endow within the Bureau of Corporations. Roosevelt successfully appealed to the public to pressure Congress, and Congress overwhelmingly voted to pass Roosevelt's version of the bill. Some didn't like this like House Speaker Joseph Gurney Cannon accused Roosevelt of making the executive branch controll all domestic policy making. The 1902 coal strike was solved by negotiation, and that strike could cause a national energy shortage. J. P. Morgan gave miners more pay for fewer hours but no union recognition. Roosevelt was the first President to help settle a labor dispute. Teddy Roosevelt ended misconduct among people in his administration who cheated the Creek people and other tribes out of land parcel. This was land fraud. 

In November 1902, Roosevelt and Secretary Ethan A. Hitchcock forced Binger Hermann, the General Land Office Commissioner, to resign from office. On November 6, 1903, Francis J. Heney was appointed special prosecutor and obtained 146 indictments involving an Oregon Land Office bribery ring. U.S. Senator John H. Mitchell was indicted for bribery to expedite illegal land patents, found guilty in July 1905, and sentenced to six months in prison. More corruption was found in the Postal Department, that brought on the indictments of 44 government employees on charges of bribery and fraud. President Roosevelt used the Hepburn Act to regulate railroad rates, regulate food and drugs (via the Meat Inspection Act of 1906 and the Pure Food and Drug Act). Food regulation was inspired by Upton Sinclair's The Jungle. The Meat law banned misleading labels and preservatives that had harmful chemicals.  The Pure Food and Drug Act banned food and drugs that were impure or falsely labeled from being made, sold, and shipped. Roosevelt also served as honorary president of the American School Hygiene Association from 1907 to 1908, and in 1909 he convened the first White House Conference on the Care of Dependent Children. One of his greatest achievements was his work on conservation. He helped to use policies to protect natural resources and wildlife. Roosevelt worked closely with Interior Secretary James Rudolph Garfield and Chief of the United States Forest Service Gifford Pinchot to enact a series of conservation programs that often met with resistance from Western members of Congress, such as Charles William Fulton.

Nonetheless, Roosevelt established the United States Forest Service, signed into law the creation of five National Parks, and signed the 1906 Antiquities Act, under which he proclaimed 18 new U.S. National Monuments. He also established the first 51 bird reserves, four game preserves, and 150 National Forests. The area of the United States that he placed under public protection totals approximately 230 million acres (930,000 square kilometers). Roosevelt extensively used executive orders on a number of occasions to protect forest and wildlife lands during his tenure as president. By the end of his second term in office, Roosevelt used executive orders to establish 150 million acres (600,000 square kilometers) of reserved forestry land. Roosevelt was unapologetic about his extensive use of executive orders to protect the environment, despite the perception in Congress that he was encroaching on too many lands. Eventually, Senator Charles Fulton (R-OR) attached an amendment to an agricultural appropriations bill that effectively prevented the president from reserving any further land. Before signing that bill into law, Roosevelt used executive orders to establish an additional 21 forest reserves, waiting until the last minute to sign the bill into law. In total, Roosevelt used executive orders to establish 121 forest reserves in 31 states. Prior to Roosevelt, only one president had issued over 200 executive orders, Grover Cleveland (253). The first 25 presidents issued a total of 1,262 executive orders; Roosevelt issued 1,081.

One of the situations of Roosevelt was his dealing with foreign policy. Teddy Roosevelt was wrong to promote an overt imperialist policy. Hawaii was annexed in 1898. America controlled the Phillipines for a time. He wanted to conquer the Philippines in his 1900 campaign. He failed by 1902. He promoted friendly relations with Japan. Roosevelt mediated a peace conference to stop Russia and Japan from furthering going into war. In California, anti-Japanese racism increased. Tokyo protested. So, Roosevelt wanted explicit Japanese discrimination to end. He sent ships to promote American forces in Japan. He allowed America to control the Philippines, and Japan to control Korea. Roosevelt saw America to be a world power having the largest economy in the world. He worked with Britain. He also worked in promoting the Panama Canal. This allowed ships to come from Europe to Asia quickly. Teddy Roosevelt loved to write in magazines and communicate with the press. Roosevelt later won the 1904 Presidential election. During the campaign, he denied corruption after Parker plus Democrats accused him of it. During his 2nd term, Roosevelt promoted more reforms. He fought for an eight hour work day for federal employees, a postal savings system to help local banks, and campaign reform laws. On domestic issues, he moved to the left. Teddy Roosevelt loved being President. He ran again in 1908, but he failed. Roosevelt disliked one candidate and considered him to be too independent. Instead, Roosevelt settled on his Secretary of War, William Howard Taft, who had ably served under Presidents Harrison, McKinley, and Roosevelt in various positions. Roosevelt and Taft had been friends since 1890, and Taft had consistently supported President Roosevelt's policies. Taft said that he wanted a rule of law and judges to make decisions about fairness. Taft was less energetic than Roosevelt. Taft wanted to lower the tariff. 

Theodore Roosevelt visited Africa to hunt and kill animals like elephants. He allowed some specimens to be maintained for the Smithsonian Institution and for the American Museum of Natural History in NYC. Roosevelt went over the line and killed or trapped about 11,400 animals. This has nothing to do with conservation but the overkill of animals. By 1910, the Republican Party was divided between Taft and Roosevelt. Taft was more conservative than Roosevelt on domestic policy issues. He wanted progressives to control the Republican Party to not split it in causing the Democrats to win it in 1912. In August 1910, Roosevelt gained national attention with a speech at Osawatomie, Kansas, which was the most radical of his career and marked his public break with Taft and the conservative Republicans. Advocating a program of "New Nationalism", Roosevelt emphasized the priority of labor over capital interests, a need to more effectively control corporate creation and combination, and proposed a ban on corporate political contributions. Roosevelt wanted to control the GOP. Senator Robert M. La Follette of Wisconsin joined with Pinchot, William White, and California Governor Hiram Johnson to create the National Progressive Republican League; their objectives were to defeat the power of political bossism at the state level and to replace Taft at the national level. Taft ironically was right to promote trade abitration to end problems, but Roosevelt wanted more confrontation to end trade disputes. Though Taft was more wrong on economic issues than Roosevelt. Roosevelt couldn't win the Republican primary in 1912, so he ran on the Progressive Bull Moose Party. Taft won it in the RNC at Chicago. 

Roosevelt's platform echoed his 1907–1908 proposals, calling for vigorous government intervention to protect the people from the selfish interests. Though many Progressive party supporters in the North were supporters of civil rights for black people, Roosevelt did not give strong support to civil rights and ran a "lily-white" campaign in the South. Rival all-white and all-black delegations from four southern states arrived at the Progressive national convention, and Roosevelt decided to seat the all-white delegations. Nevertheless, he won little support outside mountain Republican strongholds. Out of nearly 1100 counties in the South, Roosevelt won two counties in Alabama, one in Arkansas, seven in North Carolina, three in Georgia, 17 in Tennessee, two in Texas, one in Virginia, and none in Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, or South Carolina. He survived being shot in Milwaukee, Wisconsin on October 14, 1912. Woodrow Wilson won the election in 1912. Wilson was a Democrat. Roosevelt respected Wilson, but the two differed on various issues; Wilson opposed any federal intervention regarding women's suffrage or child labor (he viewed these as state issues), and attacked Roosevelt's tolerance of large businesses. He traveled into South America for an expedition after his loss in the 1912 election. Roosevelt disagreed with Wilson on many issues, but agreed with some of Wilson's reforms. Later, Roosevelt wanted Progressives to support the Republican party. In 1916, Wilson won the Presidency with many Progressive joining the Republican Party by 1916. When WWI exited, Roosevelt supported the Allies and wanted a harsh military response against Germany. Roosevelt opposed the foreign policy of Wilson calling it a failure regarding the atrocities in Belgium and the violations of American rights. He was wrong to question the patriotism of Irish and German Americans. Wilson refused to allow him to send Rough Riders to volunteer to fight in WWI. Roosevelt never forgave Wilson for that. His book The Fores of Our Own Household criticized President Wilson by name.  Roosevelt's youngest son, Quentin, a pilot with the American forces in France, was killed when shot down behind German lines on July 14, 1918, at the age of 20. It is said that Quentin's death distressed Roosevelt so much that he never recovered from his loss. Roosevelt supported the concept of a League of Nations but not Wilson's version of it. He viewed Wilson's 14 Points as too lenient to Germany.  He wrote William Allen White, "I wish to do everything in my power to make the Republican Party the Party of sane, constructive radicalism, just as it was under Lincoln." Accordingly, he told the 1918 state convention of the Maine Republican Party that he stood for old-age pensions, insurance for sickness and unemployment, construction of public housing for low-income families, the reduction of working hours, aid to farmers, and more regulation of large corporations. By 1918, Republicans won the Congress in the midterm election because Wilson's political issues. Roosevelt had many diseases. The end was near.

 

By the night of January 5, 1919, Roosevelt had breathing problems. Treatment helped him for a time. He passed away the next morning at the age of 60. A blood clot traveled to his lungs. Many people gave him words of condolences, even Woodrow Wilson's vice President Thomas R. Marshall.  Following a private farewell service in the North Room at Sagamore Hill, a simple funeral was held at Christ Episcopal Church in Oyster Bay. Vice President Thomas R. Marshall, Charles Evans Hughes, Warren G. Harding, Henry Cabot Lodge, and William Howard Taft were among the mourners. The snow-covered procession route to Youngs Memorial Cemetery was lined with spectators and a squad of mounted policemen who had ridden from New York City. Roosevelt was buried on a hillside overlooking Oyster Bay. President Roosevelt loved to write. He was a Freemason and lived a strenuous life. Many people don't know that he learned jiu-jitsu. Men and women back then studied jiu-jitsu in America plus Japan. Roosevelt followed the Reformed Church. President Theodore Roosevelt's legacy is complex. He had positions appealing to liberals and conservatives. He wanted the federal government to have a regulatory role in society. He promoted protection of natural resources, consumer protection, and control of corporations. Roosevelt was bad on foreign policy to believe in social darwinism and being an overt imperialist. His domestic reforms laid the ground work for the future New Deal and the growth of the social safety net of FDR's time. So, he was right to promote federal taxation, establish reforms, and protect the environment, but he was wrong on advancing interventionist imperialism.  He is celebrated worldwide in statues, buildings, movies, and plays. His legacy is remembered by us in 2022 indeed. 

Architecture has a very long history in our world of Earth. By the 9000's B.C, there was the Goebekli Tepe in Turkey. This was believed to be the first place of worship. During the most ancient of times, there were earthen mounds, stone circles, megaliths, and other structures. Humans used earth and stone to form geometric forms. Building structures spread globally in the 7000 B.C. when we saw the earliest town sites in areas of Jarmo, Jericho, and Ain Ghazal on the Levant. India saw Lahuradewa architecture too on the Ganes plains of India. Catal Huyuk was built in Turkey too. Wood frames in Chinese architecture like the use of mortise and tenon joinery to built wood beamed houses existed by 6000-2000 B.C. In the 3000's B.C., the city of Harappa was created in the Indus Valley civilization. The Yangshao culture in China flourished by the time of 5000 - 3000 B.C. In the time of the 3000 B.C., ancient Egypt had tons of architecture wonders from cities to the late Great Pyramids of Giza by ca. 2500 B.C. During the 2000's B.C., we saw the development of the ancient city of Mohenjo-daro in India, the Pyramid of Djoser in Egypt, and the Longshan culture of China. In ancient Egypt, the pharaohs or rulers allowed the construction of temples, shrines, statues, and pyramids. The Great Pyramids of Giza had massive mathematical precision which proved that ancient human beings were very intelligent. Homes in ancient Egypt were built with blocks of sun baked sun. There were hieroglyphics, carvings, and frescoes around the temples and tombs of ancient Egypt. The large pyramids in Egypt were readily the tombs of pharaohs. One of best architects of the ancient world was the ancient Egyptian architect named Imhotep (he is said to have designed the Step Pyramid of Djoser). Their columns were placed together to support the heavy stone entablature. Art Deco architecture is influenced by ancient Egyptian architecture. One of the most famous architectural structures in world history was Stonehenge, which was created in ca. 2,400 B.C. at Neolithic Great Britain. The structure is 30 meters high and 160 meters wide. The gravel mount of layers of soil, mud, and grass, There are dug pits and tunnels of chalk and clay. Some believe that Stonehenge was build to signify concepts on the environment or astronomical reasons. The Ziggurat of Ur was constructed in the 2000's B.C. too. Chongha Zanbil was built in ancient Harappa in India. By the 1000's, we see architectures in the four corners of the Earth from Africa to the Americas. In fact, the ancient Mayan and Olmec civilizations had tons of great architectural structures. In the 900's B.C., there was the earliest Greek temple built at Samos with some timber framing based on the Mycenaean megaron. Rome was created by the 700's B.C. Ancient Greek architecture was found in the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus starting in 515B.C. We know about the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus completed in Rome in 509 B.C.

 

The Parthenon was finished in Athens, Greece by 432 B.C. We know about the construction of Pataliputra (or Patna) in the Magadha Empire starting in 490 B.C. in the Indian subcontinent. The University of ancient Tazila existed in India by the 300's B.C. We know about the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus being completed in ca. 350 BC. The city of Alexandria was crated in 221 B.C, and the city of Antioch was founded in 300 B.C. The tallest ancient world structure in that time was the Lighthouse of Alexandria in Egypt. The Erechteion in Athens was formed in ca. 206 B.C. The city of Djenne-Djenno was first occupied in 250 B.C. in Africa. 280 B.C. was when the Colossus of Rhodes was completed. The Roman bridge in Rome was created in 126 B.C. called the Pons Aemilius. There was another bridge across the Tiber in Italy called the Ponte Milvio created in 115 B.C. Herod the Great's temple started to be formed in 37 B.C. We know about of the Roman bridge in ROme called Pons Fabricius, and the Pont du Gard in Provence, France in ca. 50 B.C. By 15 B.C, Virtruvius wrote De Architecura.  

For the first 1000 years after the birth of Jesus Christ on Earth, massive changes in architecture were formed. The Gungnae City of Goruryeo was finished at 3 A.D. The Lighthouse at Bouogne was built in 40 A.D, and the Romans formed the city of Londinium in Britain by 47-50 A.D. The Porta Maggiore was built in Rome too. The Pantheon and the Colosseum in Rome was built by the year of 100 A.D. People know about the Trajan's Column in Rome. The Alcantara Bridge or a Roman multiple arched bridge over the Tagus River in Spain was finished by 106 A.D. The Pyramid of the Sun in Teotihuacan was constructed in 200 A.D. The Column of Marcus Aurelius was dedicated in Rome in 193 A.D. The Dura Europos synagogue was formed by 224 A.D. The Nalanda of ancient learning center was built in the Gupta Empire in India by the 300's A.D. The Arch of Constantine in Rome was dedicated to the Battle of Milvian Bridge in 315. By the end of the 1st millennnium A.D, cathedrals increase from the Akhtala monastery in the 900's to the Hagia Sophia being made in the 500's A.D. The Qutub Minar was formed in India by the 1190s. The Cologne Cathedral was formed during the 1240s in its start. Notre Dame was created from 1163 to 1345. It was located in France. Mosques spread with great architectural design in the Middle East. We saw the Timbuktu university as well in Africa. More architecture buildings were formed in the Americas and in Europe like St. Paul's Cathedral in London. The Taj Malal was formed in Agra, India by the 1630s. The end of the 1700's saw Baroque style, neo classical, and other architectural movements take shape in the world massively. 

By Timothy