Winter 2022 Part 2

  

  

 

Presidents Part 3

The era of Presidents from Glover Cleveland to Chester A. Arthur represented some of the most dynamic events in American history. During that time period alone, America witnessed the American Civil War (that resulted in the deaths of over 600,000 Americans in just over 4 years), the growth of President Abraham Lincoln, Reconstruction, and federal Amendments that sought to expand liberties to human beings. This time saw the growth of the federal government to expand the general welfare of society like the  existence of the passage of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the Constitution. America was split apart literally, and tons of people have died in its first Civil War. During the Civil War, brother fought against brother and region fought against region. Slavery was a huge reason on why the Civil War transpired. The Confederacy was so obtuse and arrogant to restrict black people their rights, that they fought to maintain slavery (as proven by their own documents and their own wicked leaders). The Union won the American Civil War which was a great thing. Also, President Abraham Lincoln changed to be more progressive, but he was unjustly assassinated in 1865 (by cowards. His assassination was a conspiracy too). Later, Reconstruction existed causing black people to have firsts involving political power. Grant used policies to try to protect black American citizens from terrorism done by the Klan and other white racist far right terrorist groups. Reconstruction ended by both the white racist backlash against moves to give black people more freedom and the Compromise of 1877. After Reconstruction, Jim Crow spread all over the South and parts of the Midwest. Jim Crow apartheid caused more racism, more discrimination, and more deaths of black people. The Presidents during this time dealt with many issues, and the complex legacy of America would continue. 

 

 

James Buchanan

 

James Buchanan was the 15th President of the United States of America. He lived from 1791 to 1868 as one of the most controversial Presidents in American history. James Buchanan was a lawyer and politician who saw the end of the antebellum era and the start of the Civil War. He was the Secretary of State from 1845 to 1849. He represented the state of Pennsylvania in both houses of the U.S. Congress. He believed in states' rights, a minimized role of government, and the status quo. He was once a Federalist. He also aligned with Andrew Jackson's Democratic Party. He was a minister to Russia and to the United Kingdom. In 1846, Buchanan was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society. He was born in a log cabin in Cove Gap, Pennsylvania to James Buchanan Sr.  and Elizabeth Speer. His parents were both of Ulster Scot descent. Buchanan attended Old Stone Academy and then Dickinson College at Carlisle, Pennsylvania. September 19, 1809 was the date when James Buchanan graduated with honors from that college. He moved into the state capital back then at Lancaster. Back then, he was a Federalist who supported a federally funded internal improvements, a high tariff, and a national bank. He criticized Democratic-Republican President James Madison during the War of 1812. Buchanan was a Freemason, and he served as the Master of Masonic Lodge No. 43 in Lancaster. Later, he served as a District Deputy Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania. When the British invaded neighboring Maryland in 1814, he served in the defense of Baltimore as a private in Henry Shippen's Company, 1st Brigade, 4th Division, Pennsylvania Militia, a unit of yagers.  Buchanan is the only president with military experience who was not an officer.  He is also the last president who served in the War of 1812.

 

He won the U.S. House of Representatives race in 1820 to win it. The Federalist Party's power was waning. He also supported the racist Andrew Jackson (who supported states' rights and was involved in the oppression against Native American human beings). He worked with Jackson on his 1824 Presidential campaign too. He worked with Congressmen in the South. Buchanan also opposed a gag rule sponsored by John C. Calhoun that would have suppressed anti-slavery petitions. He joined the majority in blocking the rule, with most senators of the belief that it would have the reverse effect of strengthening the abolitionists. He said, "We have just as little right to interfere with slavery in the South, as we have to touch the right of petition." Buchanan thought that the issue of slavery was the domain of the states, and he faulted abolitionists for exciting passions over the issue. Of course, Buchanan was wrong on his views. James Buchanan supported the doctrine of Manifest Destiny. He wanted the annexation of Texas and Oregon County. After the outbreak of the Mexican–American War, he advised Polk against taking territory south of the Rio Grande River and New Mexico. However, as the war came to an end, Buchanan argued for the annexation of further territory, and Polk began to suspect that Buchanan was primarily angling to become president. Buchanan did quietly seek the nomination at the 1848 Democratic National Convention, as Polk had promised to serve only one term, but Senator Lewis Cass of Michigan was nominated

By the 1856 Presidential election. He would win it. There was debate over the Kansas-Nebraska Act. This was about the debate over the expansion of slavery. There was the 1856 Democratic National Convention meeting in June 1856. The platform of the Democratic Party reflected his views, including support for the evil Fugitive Slave Law, which required the return of escaped slaves. The platform also called for an end to anti-slavery agitation, and U.S. "ascendancy in the Gulf of Mexico." President Pierce hoped for re-nomination, while Senator Stephen A. Douglas also loomed as a strong candidate. Buchanan led on the first ballot, boosted by the support of powerful Senators John Slidell, Jesse Bright, and Thomas F. Bayard, who presented Buchanan as an experienced leader appealing to the North and South. He won the nomination after seventeen ballots. He was joined on the ticket by John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky, in order to placate supporters of Pierce and Douglas, with whom Breckinridge had been allied. 

Buchanan faced two candidates in the general election: former Whig President Millard Fillmore ran as the American Party (or "Know-Nothing") candidate, while John C. Frémont ran as the Republican nominee. Buchanan did not actively campaign, but he wrote letters and pledged to uphold the Democratic platform. In the election, he carried every slave state except for Maryland, as well as five slavery-free states, including his home state of Pennsylvania. He won 45 percent of the popular vote and decisively won the electoral vote, taking 174 of 296 votes. His election made him the first president from Pennsylvania. In a combative victory speech, Buchanan denounced Republicans, calling them a "dangerous" and "geographical" party that had unfairly attacked the South. He also declared, "the object of my administration will be to destroy sectional party, North or South, and to restore harmony to the Union under a national and conservative government." In other words, he wanted the country to be unified in the existence of slavery if necessary. He set about this initially by feigning a sectional balance in his cabinet appointments. So, James Buchanan was a terrible President by permitting slavery for the sake of "national unity." Buchanan was inaugurated on March 4, 1857, taking the oath of office from Chief Justice Roger B. Taney. In his inaugural address, Buchanan committed himself to serving only one term, as his predecessor had done. He had the cowardly position that the government should have no role in determining the status of slavery in states or territories.

He believed in popular sovereignty, and he wanted slave owners to be protected. He supported the Dred Scott decision that restricted the human rights of a black man. Buchanan wanted Northerners and Southerners in his campaign. The Northerners (who supported James Buchanan) would be Southern sympathizers. He had many people that would agree with his views. The Panic of 1857 began in the summer of that year, ushered in by the collapse of 1,400 state banks and 5,000 businesses. While the South escaped largely unscathed, numerous northern cities experienced drastic increases in unemployment. Buchanan agreed with the southerners who attributed the economic collapse to overspeculation. Buchanan wanted a laissez faire approach to solve economic problems. He didn't want the government to extend relief to people. He urged the states to restrict the banks to a credit level of $3 to $1 of specie and discouraged the use of federal or state bonds as security for bank note issues. The economy recovered in several years, though many Americans suffered as a result of the panic. Buchanan had hoped to reduce the deficit, but by the time he left office the federal deficit stood at $17 million. James Buchanan intervened in the Utah war that sought to stop Brigham Young's hostility to federal government intervention. There was conflict, and then Thomas L. Kane was sent by Buchanan to promote peace in Utah. The peace occurred with amnesty to inhabitants affirming loyalty to the government. Federal troops were kept at a peaceable distance for the time of his administration.

The Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854 created the Kansas Territory and allowed the settlers there to decide whether to allow slavery. This resulted in violence between "Free-Soil" (antislavery) and pro-slavery settlers, which developed into the "Bleeding Kansas" period. The antislavery settlers, with the help of Northern abolitionists, organized a government in Topeka. The more numerous proslavery settlers, many from the neighboring slave state Missouri, established a government in Lecompton, giving the Territory two different governments for a time, with two distinct constitutions, each claiming legitimacy. The admission of Kansas as a state required a constitution be submitted to Congress with the approval of a majority of its residents. Under President Pierce, a series of violent confrontations escalated over who had the right to vote in Kansas. The situation drew national attention, and some in Georgia and Mississippi advocated secession should Kansas be admitted as a free state. Buchanan chose to endorse the pro-slavery Lecompton government. Kansas in August 1858 rejected the pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution that Buchanan supported. Later, Kansas would be a free state. Republicans in the South blocked much of Buchanan's agenda by 1858. He vetoed the Homestead Act and the Morrill Act including land grant colleges. James Buchanan wanted more control in Central America and to get Alaska from Russia. By 1860, he didn't run again. The 1860 Presidential election, Vice President John C. Breckinridge, Abraham Lincoln of the Republican Party, John Bell, and Douglass ran for President. 

 

As early as October, the army's Commanding General, Winfield Scott, an opponent of Buchanan, warned him that Lincoln's election would likely cause at least seven states to secede from the union. He recommended that massive amounts of federal troops and artillery be deployed to those states to protect federal property, although he also warned that few reinforcements were available. Since 1857, Congress had failed to heed calls for a stronger militia and allowed the army to fall into deplorable condition. Buchanan distrusted Scott and ignored his recommendations. After Lincoln's election, Buchanan directed War Secretary Floyd to reinforce southern forts with such provisions, arms, and men as were available; however, Floyd persuaded him to revoke the order. After Lincoln's victory, secession existed from the South. Buchanan didn't want this as he said that he was against it, but he would stop them. He lied and said that Northern people were blamed for Southern secession. South Carolina was the first state to secede from the Union on December 20, 1860. Despite the efforts of Buchanan and others, six more slave states seceded by the end of January 1861. Buchanan replaced the departed Southern cabinet members with John Adams Dix, Edwin M. Stanton, and Joseph Holt, all of whom were committed to preserving the Union. When Buchanan considered surrendering Fort Sumter, the new cabinet members threatened to resign, and Buchanan relented. On January 5, Buchanan decided to reinforce Fort Sumter, sending the Star of the West with 250 men and supplies. However, he failed to ask Major Robert Anderson to provide covering fire for the ship, and it was forced to return North without delivering troops or supplies. Buchanan chose not to respond to this act of war, and instead sought to find a compromise to avoid secession. He received a March 3 message from Anderson, that supplies were running low, but the response became Lincoln's to make, as the latter succeeded to the presidency the next day.

 

Less than 2 months after Buchanan wasn't President, the Civil War happened. He supported the Union during the American Civil War. Soon after the publication of the memoir (called Mr. Buchanan's Administration on the Eve of Rebellion being published on May 1866), Buchanan caught a cold in May 1868, which quickly worsened due to his advanced age. He died on June 1, 1868, of respiratory failure at the age of 77 at his home at Wheatland. He was interred in Woodward Hill Cemetery in Lancaster. He was a liar to blame abolitionists for the war, and he said that slaves were treated with kindness and humanity (which is not only a lie but a cruel disrespect of black humanity). Slavery is about dehumanization, torture, and oppression not kindness. The truth is purely known about his legacy in full detail. 

 

Abraham Lincoln

 

Historians consider him as among the top 3 greatest Presidents in American history. Abraham Lincoln remains one of the most important figures of world history. He saw so many changes in the United States from the American Civil War to the expansion of the role of the federal government in everyday American life. He was a Republican, but he wasn't a far-right extremist on many issues. In fact, many of his policies would be progressive. President Abraham Lincoln was the 16th President of the United States of America, and he lived from February 12, 1809 to April 15, 1865. Lincoln had many jobs like being a member of the House of Representatives, being a member of the Illinois state House of Representatives, and being a lawyer too. He was born in a log cabin on a Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville, Kentucky. His parents are Thomas Lincoln and Nancy Hanks Lincoln. His ancestor was the Englishman Samuel Lincoln (who came from Hingham, Norfolk. Samuel came into Hingham, Massachusetts in 1638). His family moved into New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. His ancestors came from Virginia and came into Jefferson County, Kentucky. Abraham Lincoln's family moved into Indiana. Lincoln was born poor. Thomas worked as a farmer, cabinetmaker, and carpenter. He did own livestock, farms, and other lands. Thomas and Nancy were members of a Separate Baptist church that forbade alcohol, dancing, and slavery. His mother died on October 5, 1818, and his sister died in 1828. Her name was Sarah. This hurt Lincoln a great deal. Thomas married Sarah Bush Johnston. Abraham Lincoln loved to read, write, and cipher. Lincoln said that he didn't like the physical labor, but he loved to read. 

 

Lincoln was heavily self-educated. Itinerant teachers taught him in Kentucky. Lincoln loved to read the King James Bible, Aesop's Fables, John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress, and other literature. Lincoln was tall, athletic, and knew how to use an ax. He was a wrestler too. By 21, he was the county wrestling champion. Lincoln was known for his strength. Abraham Lincoln did chores around the home and so forth. By March 1830, many members of Lincoln's family including Abraham Lincoln himself, moved west into Illinois, another free state. They settled in Macon County. Thomas and other family members moved into a new homestead in Coles County, Illinois. Abraham Lincoln later lived in New Salem, Illinois for 6 years. He was repulsed at slavery when we saw it at a flatboat in New Orleans. He was with his friends at the time. In 1865, Lincoln was asked how he came to acquire his rhetorical skills. He answered that in the practice of law he frequently came across the word "demonstrate" but had insufficient understanding of the term. So, he left Springfield for his father's home to study until he "could give any proposition in the six books of Euclid [here, referencing Euclid's Elements] at sight."

 

Abraham Lincoln dated Ann Rutledge for a time. She passed away on August 25, 1835, probably of typhoid fever. Lincoln dated Mary Owens in the 1830's. Then, Lincoln met Mary Todd at Springfield, Illinois in 1839. She was the daughter of Robert Smith Todd, a wealthy lawyer and businessman in Lexington, Kentucky. Abraham Lincoln and Mary Todd married on November 4, 1842, in the Springfield mansion of Mary's sister. By this time, Abraham Lincoln was a great lawyer with 5 sons. Many of his sons passed away by disease. Lincoln restricted showing information to the public about his children. Lincoln studied law and was an Illinois state legislator from 1834 to 1842. He was a political Whig in office. He promoted the building of the Illinois and Michigan Canal (including the fact that he was a Canal Commissioner). He wanted suffrage to be for all white males and had a free-soil stance opposing slavery and abolition. The reality is that suffrage is meant for all of humanity, not just for a certain group of people. He even wanted black people to go into Liberia with the colonization plan (until he changed his mind). True to his record, Lincoln professed to friends in 1861 to be "an old-line Whig, a disciple of Henry Clay." Their party favored economic modernization in banking, tariffs to fund internal improvements including railroads, and urbanization. Lincoln teamed with Joshua R. Giddings on a bill to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia with compensation for the owners, enforcement to capture fugitive slaves, and a popular vote on the matter. He dropped the bill when it eluded Whig support.

Abraham Lincoln opposed the Mexican-American War overtly. He supported the Wilmot Proviso, a failed proposal to ban slavery in any U.S. territory won from Mexico. Lincoln rejected President James K. Polk's political views. Lincoln wanted Polk to show proof that American soldiers died in American soil involving the Mexican forces. He supported General Zachary Taylor for the Whig nomination in the 1848 Presidential election. Abraham Lincoln worked in law continuously on transportation cases too. He appeared before the Illinois Supreme Court in 175 cases. His legal reputation gave him the nickname of "Honest Abe." Lincoln allowed Harrison to be acquitted in a case involving a murder case. Abraham Lincoln for a long time was a moderate on slavery. He opposed slavery on moral grounds, but he never supported the revolutionary abolitionist movement early on in a hardcore level. He opposed the Kansas-Nebraska Act. He joined the Republican Party. He disagreed with the expansion of slavery. Lincoln instructed his backers to vote for Lyman Trumbull. Trumbull was an antislavery Democrat, and he had received few votes in the earlier ballots. His supporters, also antislavery Democrats, had vowed not to support any Whig. Lincoln's decision to withdraw enabled his Whig supporters and Trumbull's antislavery Democrats to combine and defeat the mainstream Democratic candidate, Joel Aldrich Matteson. 

 

Lincoln lived during the Dred Scott v. Standford case when Dred Scott was deprived of his human rights. Lincoln denounced the decision as a part of a conspiracy of Democrats to expand slavery in America. He argued the decision was at variance with the Declaration of Independence; he said that while the founding fathers did not believe all men equal in every respect (which was wrong on the Founders' part), they believed all men were equal "in certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." Abraham Lincoln debated Douglas for the Senate. He gave his House Divided Speech. In the speech, he showed the biblical reference Mark 3:25, "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved—I do not expect the house to fall—but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other." In the debates, Lincoln made remarks on race that I don't agree with. Lincoln won the 1858 election. Then, many people supported Abraham Lincoln to won for President. On February 27, 1860, powerful New York Republicans invited Lincoln to give a speech at Cooper Union, in which he argued that the Founding Fathers of the United States had little use for popular sovereignty and had repeatedly sought to restrict slavery. He insisted that morality required opposition to slavery, and Lincoln rejected any "groping for some middle ground between the right and the wrong." Historian David Herbert Donald described the speech as a "superb political move for an unannounced candidate, to appear in one rival's (Seward) own state at an event sponsored by the second rival's (Chase) loyalists, while not mentioning either by name during its delivery."

 

 

This Map showed the electoral results of the 1860 Presidential Election. President Lincoln was the victor winning many states of the North, the Midwest, and the West Coast. 

Abraham Lincoln won the Republican National Convention in Chicago on May 18, 1860. He was a moderate on the slavery issue and wanted internal improvements plus the tariff. Many Democrats didn't support Douglas because of his support of popular sovereignty. The race in 1960 was filled with Bell, Breckinridge, Lincoln, and Douglas. Lincoln won most of the Midwest, the Northeast, California, and Oregon. Breckinridge won mostly the South, Douglas won only Missouri, and Bell won very little. On November 6, 1860, Lincoln was elected the 16th president. He was the first Republican president, and his victory was entirely due to his support in the North and West. No ballots were cast for him in 10 of the 15 Southern slave states, and he won only two of 996 counties in all the Southern states, an omen of the impending Civil War.  Lincoln received 1,866,452 votes, or 39.8% of the total in a four-way race, carrying the free Northern states, as well as California and Oregon. His victory in the electoral college was decisive: Lincoln had 180 votes to 123 for his opponents.

 

President Abraham Lincoln was in a tough atmosphere. The South didn't like his victory. He took office in March 1861. Traitors and secessionists seceded from the Union. On December 20, 1860, South Carolina took the lead by adopting an ordinance of secession; by February 1, 1861, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed. Six of these states declared themselves to be a sovereign nation, the Confederate States of America, and adopted a constitution.  The upper South and border states (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) initially rejected the secessionist appeal. President Buchanan and President-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy, declaring secession illegal.  The Confederacy selected Jefferson Davis as its provisional president on February 9, 1861. Compromise efforts failed. Abraham Lincoln escaped assassins as early as February 23, 1861. Early on, Lincoln still didn't want slavery abolished in the South during his March 4, 1861 First inaugural address. Abraham Lincoln wanted to end conflicts, but war was inevitable.  On April 12, 1861, Confederate forces fired on Union troops at Fort Sumter and began the fight. On April 15, Lincoln called on the states to send a total of 75,000 volunteer troops to recapture forts, protect Washington, and "preserve the Union", which, in his view, remained intact despite the seceding states. This call forced states to choose sides. Virginia seceded, the Confederates the designation of Richmond as the Confederate capital, despite its exposure to Union lines. North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas followed over the following two months. Secession sentiment was strong in Missouri and Maryland, but these views did not prevail; Kentucky remained neutral.  The Fort Sumter attack rallied Americans north of the Mason-Dixon line to defend the nation. The U.S. Civil War happened. Attacks happened by mobs against Union troops in Baltimore. Lincoln suspended the writ of habeas corpus to secure troops from Maryland to reach Washington, D.C. He expanded his war powers, imposed a blockade on Confederate ports, disbursed funds before appropriation by Congress, suspended habeas corpus, and arrested and imprisoned thousands of suspected Confederate sympathizers. Lincoln gained the support of Congress and the northern public for these actions. Lincoln also had to reinforce Union sympathies in the border slave states and keep the war from becoming an international conflict.

Radical Republicans wanted Lincoln to go further in abolishing slavery completely. On August 6, 1861, Lincoln signed the Confiscation Act that authorized judicial proceedings to confiscate and free slaves who were used to support the Confederates. The law had little practical effect, but it signaled political support for abolishing slavery. General John C. Fremont freed slaves for a time. President Lincoln used his Secretary of State William Seward to stop massive foreign military aid to the Confederacy. Edwin Stanton worked with Lincoln during the war too. Lincoln used General George McClellan and others to fight. The war by the Union was slow. By 1863, General Grant captured Vicksburg and gained control of the Mississippi River, splitting the far western rebel states. Lincoln rejected Fremont's two emancipation attempts in August 1861, as well as one by Major General David Hunter in May 1862, on the grounds that it was not within their power, and Lincoln thought that these actions would upset loyal border states. The Emancipation Proclamation, issued on September 22, 1862, and effective January 1, 1863, affirmed the freedom of slaves in 10 states not then under Union control, with exemptions specified for areas under such control. Lincoln's comment on signing the Proclamation was: "I never, in my life, felt more certain that I was doing right, than I do in signing this paper." This increased the number of black Union soldiers, and these soldiers helped to win the war for the Union. After the battle of Gettysburg in 1863, Abraham Lincoln gave his famous Gettysburg Address to focus on the sacrifice of soldiers, the concept that all men are created equal, and wanted to make sure that the " government of the people, by the people, and for the people, shall not perish from the Earth." Lincoln supported General Grant because of his courage and victories in the battlefield. Grant won the Battle of Shiloh and Vicksburg.

General Grant commanded Meade's army. Grant fought in Virginia too. By 1864, it was a foregone conclusion that the Union was going to win the war. The Union had more soldiers, more resources, and the Confederacy collapsed. The question was what would a future America be after the Confederate defeat. Lincoln won re-election in the 1864 Presidential campaign. He even won Louisiana and Tennessee including Nevada. McClellan only won 2 states. Grant had a stalemate in many places, but Abraham Lincoln fought hard to win re-election. Andrew Johnson was Vice President. The Democratic Party was divided and without much power. His support was among 78 percent of Union soldiers. On March 4, 1865, Lincoln delivered his second inaugural address. In it, he deemed the war casualties to be God's will. Historian Mark Noll places the speech "among the small handful of semi-sacred texts by which Americans conceive their place in the world;" it is inscribed in the Lincoln Memorial. This speech was much better than his 1st Inaugural Address. Here are some of his powerful words in his 2nd Presidential Inaugural Address on March 4, 1865:

"...Fondly do we hope—fervently do we pray—that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away. Yet, if God wills that it continue, until all the wealth piled by the bond-man's 250 years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash, shall be paid by another drawn with the sword, as was said 3,000 years ago, so still it must be said, "the judgments of the Lord, are true and righteous altogether". With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation's wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow, and his orphan—to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace, among ourselves, and with all nations..."

 

The early Reconstruction era existed in 1865 when President Abraham Lincoln was alive. Lincoln wanted immediate integration of Confederate states to the Union after the war was over. Radical Republicans wanted Confederate leaders to be punished. Lincoln was a moderate on Reconstruction, and Rep. Thaddeus Stevens was progressive on Reconstruction. Stevens, Sumner, and Sen. Benjamin Wade were Lincoln's allies still. His Amnesty Proclamation of December 8, 1863, offered pardons to those who had not held a Confederate civil office and had not mistreated Union prisoners, if they were willing to sign an oath of allegiance. Lincoln's appointments were designed to harness both moderates and Radicals. To fill Chief Justice Taney's seat on the Supreme Court, he named the Radicals' choice, Salmon P. Chase, who Lincoln believed would uphold his emancipation and paper money policies. By 1865, President Abraham Lincoln promoted a Constitutional amendment to abolish slavery completely in America. This first attempt fell short of the required two-thirds majority in the House of Representatives. Passage became part of Lincoln's reelection platform, and after his successful reelection, the second attempt in the House passed on January 31, 1865. With ratification, it became the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution on December 6, 1865. Abraham Lincoln wanted an expanded federal government to help freedmen via the Freedmen's Bureau (as he signed Senator Charles Sumner's Freedmen Bureau Bill). The law opened land for a lease of three years with the ability to purchase title for the freedmen. Lincoln announced a Reconstruction plan that involved short-term military control, pending readmission under the control of southern Unionists. 

 

Abraham Lincoln believed in voting rights for some black people (limited black suffrage). One of the biggest errors of Abraham Lincoln was his treatment of Native American people. His grandfather Abraham died with conflict with Native Americans, but that is not an excuse for his actions towards them. He used the Indian Bureau as a source of patronage, making appointments to his loyal followers in Minnesota and Wisconsin. General John Pope wanted extinction of Native peoples in the Midwest which was evil and wrong. Abraham Lincoln focused on massive investments by the federal government. The 1862 Homestead Act made millions of acres of Western government-held land available for purchase at low cost. The 1862 Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act provided government grants for agricultural colleges in each state. The Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864 granted federal support for the construction of the United States' First Transcontinental Railroad, which was completed in 1869. The passage of the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railway Acts was enabled by the absence of Southern congressmen and senators who had opposed the measures in the 1850s. President Lincoln was wrong to veto the Wade-Davis Bill that dealt with Reconstruction. He or Lincoln promoted the National Banking Act, income taxes, The Yosemite Grant, greenbacks, and the Department of Agriculture. He made Thanksgiving a national holiday. Today, we know the real history of Thanksgiving. It is what it is. 

 

Lincoln made five appointments to the Supreme Court. Noah Haynes Swayne was an anti-slavery lawyer who was committed to the Union. Samuel Freeman Miller supported Lincoln in the 1860 election and was an avowed abolitionist. David Davis was Lincoln's campaign manager in 1860 and had served as a judge in the Illinois court circuit where Lincoln practiced. Democrat Stephen Johnson Field, a previous California Supreme Court justice, provided geographic and political balance. Finally, Lincoln's Treasury Secretary, Salmon P. Chase, became Chief Justice. Lincoln believed Chase was an able jurist, would support Reconstruction legislation, and that his appointment united the Republican Party. Lincoln appointed 27 judges to the United States district courts but no judges to the United States circuit courts during his time in office. He saw West Virginia and Nevada be new American states. 

On April 1, 1865, Grant nearly encircled Petersburg in a siege. The Confederate government evacuated Richmond, and Lincoln visited the conquered capital (of Richmond, Virginia). On April 9, 1865, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox (in Virginia), officially ending the war. Abraham Lincoln on April 11, 1865 gave a speech where Lincoln promoted voting rights for some black Americans. This stirred up John Wilkes Booth to assassinate Lincoln. Booth worked in a conspiracy with racists and Confederate sympathizers to do the evil deed. Lincoln was at Ford's Theater to see a play. The play was Our American Cousin on April 14. Grant went to New Jersey to visit his children. At 10:15 in the evening, Booth entered the back of Lincoln's theater box, crept up from behind, and fired at the back of Lincoln's head, mortally wounding him. Lincoln's guest Major Henry Rathbone momentarily grappled with Booth, but Booth stabbed him and escaped.

 

After being attended by Doctor Charles Leale and two other doctors, Lincoln was taken across the street to Petersen House. After remaining in a coma for eight hours, Lincoln died at 7:22 in the morning on April 15. Stanton saluted and said, "Now he belongs to the ages." Lincoln's body was placed in a flag-wrapped coffin, which was loaded into a hearse and escorted to the White House by Union soldiers. President Johnson was sworn in the next morning.

Two weeks later, Booth, refusing to surrender, was tracked to a farm in Virginia, and was mortally shot by Sergeant Boston Corbett and died on April 26. Secretary of War Stanton had issued orders that Booth be taken alive, so Corbett was initially arrested for court martial. After a brief interview, Stanton declared him a patriot and dismissed the charge. The late President Abraham Lincoln was in state at the East Room of the White House. The casket was sent to the Capitol Rotunda and sent on a train to Springfield, Illinois. American Americans and many other Americans mourned. His body is at in the Lincoln Tomb at Oak Ridge Cemetery in Springfield, Illinois.  Abraham Lincoln transformed the Republican Party like Franklin Delano Roosevelt transformed the Democratic Party forever. The irony is that the Trump Republicans today are the complete opposite ideologically of President Abraham Lincoln's views and legacy. There are many different views about President Abraham Lincoln. The truth is in between the 2 extreme views of him (of him being messianic to him being a terrible President). The truth is that President Abraham Lincoln was not a perfect man, but he has grown light years in his political views from the 1850's to 1865. By 1865, he was a much better man than he was in 1861. He has grown in his political consciousness. President Abraham Lincoln lived in one of the most important ages of human history, and his legacy continues to exist in our time in the 2020's. The legacy of the U.S. Civil War is still with us too. 

  

 

Andrew Johnson

 

Andrew Johnson has lived in infamy as one of the most racist Presidents in American history. He not only wanted Confederate leaders to be pardoned without accountability for their evil crimes. He was hostile to Reconstruction policies. He was once the vice President of Abraham Lincon, and he was a Democratic President too. He lived from December 29, 1808 to July 31, 1875. He was born in Raleigh, North Carolina. He had English, Scots-Irish, and Irish ancestry. His parents were Jacob Johnson (1778-1812) and Mary (Poly) McDonough (1783-1856). He had siblings who died in their childhoods. Andrew Johnson was born in a two-room shack. He was a poor child growing up in poverty. Andrew Johnson was inspired to read by one worker. He had a lifelong love of learning, and he was a public speaker. Johnson moved into Laurens, South Carolina after running away from North Carolina. He came into Raleigh. Later, he moved west into Tennesse in fear of being arrested for running away. He lived in Knoxville, Mooresville, Alabama. He also was a tailor in Columbia, Tennessee. He fell in love with Greeneville, Tennessee. He married Eliza McCardle when she was just 16 years old. He was 18. They were married by the first cousin of Thomas Lincoln (whose son was Abraham Lincoln). His name was Mordecai Lincoln. Mordecai was the Justice of the Peace. Andrew Johnson invested in real estate, and he was a famous tailor. He read books all of the time, and he had private debates on the issues of the day with customers who had opposing views. He took part in debates at Greeneville College. Andrew Johnson and his wife had 5 children named Martha, Charles, Mary, Robert, and Andrew Jr. Eliza supported Andrew's work. She suffered from tuberculosis. His wife taught him mathematics and helped to improve his writing. His wife was shy, and his daughter Martha served as an official hostess. Andrew Johnson started to have slaves in 1843. The human being (who was enslaved) was named Dolly and 14 years old in that time, and Johnson later kidnapped Sam. Dolly had 3 children named Liz, Florence, and William. 

In 1857, Andrew Johnson purchased Henry, who was 13 at the time and would later accompany the Johnson family to the White House. Sam Johnson and his wife Margaret had nine children. Sam became a commissioner of the Freedmen's Bureau and was known for being a proud man who negotiated the nature of his work with the Johnson family. Notably, he received some monetary compensation for his labors and negotiated with Andrew Johnson to receive a tract of land which Andrew Johnson gave him for free in 1867. Ultimately, Johnson owned at least ten slaves. He only freed the slaves on August 8, 1863. The former slaves were his paid servants. In 1864, Andrew Johnson was the military governor of Tennessee when he proclaimed the freedom of all Tennessee slaves. Sam and Margaret, lived in his tailor shop while he was President without rent. Andrew Johnson was given a watch by many emancipated people in Tennessee. It was inscribed with the words of "for his Untiring Energy in the Cause of Freedom." Obviously, Johnson was not an advocate for true freedom for all people. Andrew Johnson was a politician early on. Johnson organized an 1829 working men's ticket in the 1829 Greenville municipal election. He was elected town alderman. Also, he promoted a state convention to pass a new constitution to disenfranchise person of color who were free. This was about the time of the 1831 Nat Turner slave rebellion. It has infrastructure plans in them. Andrew Johnson was the mayor of Greenville on January 4, 1834. During his Greeneville days, Johnson joined the Tennessee Militia as a member of the 90th Regiment. He attained the rank of colonel, though while an enrolled member, Johnson was fined for an unknown offense. Afterwards, he was often addressed or referred to by his rank. 

The Tennessee state legislature was another job that Johnson was part of. Johnson wanted minimal government spending and didn't want aid for the railroads. He lost reelection in 1837 to Brookins Campbell and the Whigs. He was a Presidential elector, a state Senator, and a member of the U.S.House of Representatives. Johnson was anti-abolitionist, talked about the interests of the poor, and opposed protective tariffs. He wanted limited spending. Andrew Johnson supported slavery and didn't want the federal government to fight it. He also supported the Polk's administration decision to fight in the Mexican War. That war helped to make Texas a slave state. Also, he opposed the Wilmot Proviso since it was a plan to ban slavery in any territory gained from Mexico. He supported the Homestead Bill to give 160 acres to people. He even supported slavery in D.C. He advanced the Compromise of 1850. Later, Andrew Johnson was the Governor of Tennessee. Farmers and other people voted heavily for Andrew Johnson to be a new U.S. Senator. In October 1859, abolitionist John Brown and sympathizers raided the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia (today West Virginia). Tensions in Washington between pro- and anti-slavery forces increased greatly. Johnson gave a major speech in the Senate in December, decrying Northerners who would endanger the Union by seeking to outlaw slavery. The Tennessee senator stated that "all men are created equal" from the Declaration of Independence did not apply to African Americans, since the Constitution of Illinois contained that phrase—and that document bared voting by African Americans. So, Andrew Johnson was a total racist. By that time, Johnson owned 14 slaves, and he was wealthy. He supported the Homestead plan. Gordon-Reed points out that while Johnson's belief in an indissoluble Union was sincere, he had alienated Southern leaders, including Davis, who would soon be the president of the Confederate States of America, formed by the seceding states. If the Tennessean had backed the Confederacy, he would have had small influence in its government.

 

Tennesse joined the Confederacy after a 2nd referendum was passed by Juen 1861. Andrew Johnson opposed secession and wanted a unified Union. Johnson had to flee to the Cumberland Gap where his friends were shot at. His family and wife stayed in Greeneville. Johnson worked with Abraham Lincoln early on. He wanted any Union commander to fight the Confederacy in East Tennessee. Lincoln appointed him as the military Governor of Tennesse.  Later in 1862, after his departure from the Senate and in the absence of most Southern legislators, the Homestead Bill was finally enacted. Along with legislation for land-grant colleges and for the transcontinental railroad, the Homestead Bill has been credited with opening the American West to settlement. He fought in 1863 to allow Tennessee to be part of the Union. Johnson didn't want Tennessee to be affected by the Emancipation Proclamation. Then, he finally said that he wanted to end slavery. He reluctantly supported efforts to enlist former slaves into the Union Army, feeling that African Americans should perform menial tasks to release white Americans to do the fighting. Nevertheless, he succeeded in recruiting 20,000 black soldiers to serve the Union. Andrew Johnson was Vice President by 1865. Lincoln wanted a unity ticket. On the afternoon of April 14, 1865, Lincoln and Johnson met for the first time since the inauguration. Trefousse states that Johnson wanted to "induce Lincoln not to be too lenient with traitors"; Gordon-Reed agrees.

 

 

Andrew Johnson was President after Abraham Lincoln's evil assassination. Johnson wanted the conspirators to face punishment. Further, Johnson placed a $100,000 bounty (equivalent to $1.69 million in 2020) on Confederate President Davis, then a fugitive, which gave Johnson the reputation of a man who would be tough on the South. More controversially, he permitted the execution of Mary Surratt for her part in Lincoln's assassination. Surratt was executed with three others, including Atzerodt, on July 7, 1865.  President Lincoln had authorized loyalist governments in Virginia, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Tennessee as the Union came to control large parts of those states and advocated a ten percent plan that would allow elections after ten percent of the voters in any state took an oath of future loyalty to the Union. Congress considered this too lenient; its own plan, requiring a majority of voters to take the loyalty oath, passed both houses in 1864, but Lincoln pocket vetoed it. Andrew Johnson wanted a speedy restoration of the Union as long as those states, who seceded, expressed loyalty to the Union. He didn't want voting rights for all black people and wanted states to decide on voting rights. He wanted reelection in 1868. 

 

The Republicans had formed a number of factions. The Radical Republicans sought voting and other civil rights for African Americans. They believed that the freedmen could be induced to vote Republican in gratitude for emancipation, and that black votes could keep the Republicans in power and Southern Democrats, including former rebels, out of influence. They believed that top Confederates should be punished. The Moderate Republicans sought to keep the Democrats out of power at a national level and prevent former rebels from resuming power. They were not as enthusiastic about the idea of African American suffrage as their Radical colleagues, either because of their own local political concerns, or because they falsely believed that the freedman would be likely to cast his vote badly. Northern Democrats favored the unconditional restoration of the Southern states. They did not support African American suffrage, which might threaten Democratic control in the South. Johnson wanted the states to handle Reconstruction issues, but the Radical Republicans wanted more federal intervention. Johnson promoted amnesty to many ex-rebels without black suffrage or rights to the freed people. Since many Northerners didn't want black suffrage like many in the South, the Southern states used Black Codes. The Black Codes binded African-American laborers to farms on annual contracts they could not quit and allowing law enforcement at whim to arrest them for vagrancy and rent out their labor. Most Southerners elected to Congress were former Confederates, with the most prominent being Georgia Senator-designate and former Confederate vice president Alexander Stephens. Congress assembled in early December 1865; Johnson's conciliatory annual message to them was well received. Nevertheless, Congress refused to seat the Southern legislators and established a committee to recommend appropriate Reconstruction legislation. Many Republicans didn't want the Black Codes or the power of the Southern states to increase. This galvanized Republicans and Johnson broke with the Republicans in 1866. 

 

Johnson wanted a political battle with the Radical Republicans in order for him to win election in 1868. Illinois Senator Lyman Trumbull, leader of the Moderate Republicans and Chairman of the Judiciary Committee, was anxious to reach an understanding with the President. He ushered through Congress a bill extending the Freedmen's Bureau beyond its scheduled abolition in 1867, and the first Civil Rights Bill, to grant citizenship to the freedmen. Trumbull met several times with Johnson and was convinced the President would sign the measures (Johnson rarely contradicted visitors, often fooling those who met with him into thinking he was in accord). In fact, the President opposed both bills as infringements on state sovereignty. Johnson wanted to gain more support among white Southerners. Johnson vetoed the Freedman's Bureau's bill on February 18, 1866. Many white Southerners cheered. Republicans were angry. The Senate failed to overthrow the veto. He wanted the Radical Republicans defeated, but moderate Republicans would unite with Radical Republicans to fight back. Andrew Johnson gave a speech and lied to say that Stevens, Sumner, and Phillips were plotting his assassination. The Republicans overridden the Johnson veto of the Civil Rights Act of 1866. It was the first of its kind in American history. Johnson even opposed the 14th Amendment. In January 1867, Congressman Stevens introduced legislation to dissolve the Southern state governments and reconstitute them into five military districts, under martial law. The states would begin again by holding constitutional conventions. African Americans could vote for or become delegates; former Confederates could not.  Johnson was impeached but not kicked out of office by the Senate. Andrew Johnson sent Secretary of State William H. Seward to handle foreign policy issues. Seward wanted America to gain more territories. He was involved in gaining Alaska from Russia. Johnson signed the Southern Homestead Act to help poor people, but it was plagued with fraud. Johnson pardoned Davis at the end of his term, even Dr. Samuel Mudd (who was convicted of conspiracy in being involved in the assassination of Abraham Lincoln). Andrew Johnson won the Senate seat late in life. He died of a stroke at the age of 1866. 

 

President Grant had the "painful duty" of announcing the death of the only surviving past president. Northern newspapers, in their obituaries, tended to focus on Johnson's loyalty during the war, while Southern ones paid tribute to his actions as president. Johnson's funeral was held on August 3 in Greeneville. He was buried with his body wrapped in an American flag and a copy of the U.S. Constitution placed under his head, according to his wishes. The burial ground was dedicated as the Andrew Johnson National Cemetery in 1906, and with his home and tailor's shop, is part of the Andrew Johnson National Historic Site. Andrew Johnson was what he was. He was born in poverty, knew the truth, and he decided to still support policies that harmed the rights of the most vulnerable, oppressed Americans. Andrew Johnson was not new. Back then and today, significant amounts of people in America believed in a small government, in racial bigotry, and hostility towards Reconstruction policies. So, Andrew Johnson's oppressive legacy is overt, not mysterious. He had one term, and the future legacy of American society would evolve into many designations.  

 

 

Ulysses S. Grant

 

Ulysses S. Grant was the 18th President of the United States of America. He lived from April 27, 1822 to July 23, 1885. He was a much better President than Andrew Johnson. In recent years, more people realize not only his imperfections but of his support for new Reconstruction laws that fought against oppression that black Americans faced during the late 19th century. He was a military General who helped the Union forces to defeat the Confederacy. He created the Justice Department and worked with Radical Republicans to fight to protect African Americans during Reconstruction. He was born at Point Pleasant, Ohio. His parents were Jesse Root Grant and Hannah Simpson Grant. His ancestors came from the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630 via the Mary and John Ship. Grant's great grandfather fought in the French and Indian War, and his grandfather, Noah, served in the American Revolution at Bunker hill. Noah settled in Pennsylvania and later married Rachel Kelley, the daughter of an Irish pioneer. Ulysses' father, Jesse, was a Whig Party member and a strident abolitionist. Jesse Grant moved to Point Pleasant in 1820, and he worked as a foreman in a tannery. He married Hannah on June 24, 1821. Hannah came from Presbyterian immigrants from Ballygawley in County Tyrone, Ireland. Ulysses had many brothers and sisters. He lived in Georgetown, Ohio. He started school at the age of 4. Horse riding was his gift too. Ulysses S. Grant prayed privately and never joined any denomination of a church. Ulysess S. Grant went into West Point at New York state.  He graduated from West Point too. Grant had friends in the Academy like Frederick Tracy Dent and James Longstreet. He graduated on June 30, 1843.Grant married Julia and had 4 children. Grant's father opposed Dent's family owning slaves, so he didn't attend the wedding. Grant remained in the army. When the Mexican American war existed, Grant was a military leader in the U.S. Army. The war broke out in 1846. 

 

During that war, he was actively involved. His unit came into Louisiana as being part of the Army of Observation under Major General Zachary Taylor. The Battle of Palo Alto was the time when Grant saw combat for the first time on May 8,1846. Grant wanted combat. He led a charge at the Battle of Resaca de la Palma. He could ride a horse well. Polk, wary of Taylor's growing popularity, divided his forces, sending some troops (including Grant's unit) to form a new army under Major General Winfield Scott. Traveling by sea, Scott's army landed at Veracruz and advanced toward Mexico City. The army met the Mexican forces at the battles of Molino del Rey and Chapultepec outside Mexico City. For his bravery at Molino del Rey, Grant was brevetted first lieutenant on September 30. At San Cosmé, Grant directed his men to drag a disassembled howitzer into a church steeple, then reassembled it and bombarded nearby Mexican troops. His bravery and initiative earned him his brevet promotion to captain. On September 14, 1847, Scott's army marched into the city; Mexico ceded the vast territory, including California, to the U.S. on February 2, 1848.  Grant studied the tactics and strategies of Scott and Taylor. Grant admitted in writing that the Mexican war was morally unjust and that the territorial gains were designed to expand slavery, stating, "I was bitterly opposed to the measure ... and to this day, regard the war which resulted as one of the most unjust ever waged by a stronger against a weaker nation." He opined that the Civil War was divine punishment on the U.S. for its aggression against Mexico. During the war, Grant discovered his "moral courage" and began to consider a career in the army. 

 

 After the war, Grant worked in the Madison Barracks in upstate New York. He worked at a quartermaster job in Detroit. Grant worked everywhere from California, Panama, and to Oregon Territory. He was in civilian life in 1854 when he was 32 years old. Grant experienced poverty and even did the wrong by acquiring a slave. He felt guilt and freed the slave by manumission (in a deed) in March 1859. He worked in the real estate business with Julia's cousin Harry Boggs in St. Louis. Grant voted for Democrat James Buchanan, because he was afraid that Republican John C. Fremont would use his anti-slavery position that would lead to be southern secession. Grant considered Fremont to be a shameless self-promoter.  For the 1860 election, he could not vote because he was not yet a legal resident of Illinois, but he favored Democrat Stephen A. Douglas over the eventual winner, Abraham Lincoln, and Lincoln over the Southern Democrat, John C. Breckinridge. He was torn between his increasingly anti-slavery views and the fact that his wife remained a staunch Democrat. The American Civil War started on April 12, 1861 when Confederate troops attacked Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. Grant was shocked. On April 15, 1861, President Abraham Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers. 

 

Grant was inspired by his father's attorney John Aaron Rawlins to fight the Confederacy. Grant went up the military ranks and fought in Missouri. On November 2, 1861, Lincoln removed Frémont from command, freeing Grant to attack Confederate soldiers encamped in Cape Girardeau, Missouri. On November 5, Grant, along with Brigadier General John A. McClernand, landed 2,500 men at Hunter's Point, and on November 7 engaged the Confederates at the Battle of Belmont. The Union army took the camp, but the reinforced Confederates under Brigadier Generals Frank Cheatham and Gideon J. Pillow forced a chaotic Union retreat. Grant had won the first major victory for the Union, capturing Floyd's entire rebel army of more than 12,000. Halleck was angry that Grant had acted without his authorization and complained to McClellan, accusing Grant of "neglect and inefficiency". On March 3, Halleck sent a telegram to Washington complaining that he had no communication with Grant for a week. Three days later, Halleck followed up with a postscript claiming "word has just reached me that ... Grant has resumed his bad habits (of drinking)." Lincoln, regardless, promoted Grant to major general of volunteers and the Northern press treated Grant as a hero. Playing off his initials, they took to calling him "Unconditional Surrender Grant." In November, after Lincoln's preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, Grant ordered units under his command to incorporate former slaves into the Union Army, giving them clothes, shelter, and wages for their services. Grant held western Tennessee with almost 40,000 men. The Union got Vicksburg later on cutting the Confederacy in two on the Mississippi river. On December 17, 1862, Grant was wrong to issue the General Order No. 11 got banned many Jewish people from his Union Army military district. Lincoln rescinded the order on January 17, 1863. General Ulyssess S. Grant continued to have more successful campaigns in defeating the Confederacy. In 1865, he finally saw Robert E. Lee, and Lee surrendered (at the Appomattox Court House). Grant allowed Lee's men to keep their horses. The war was over. By May 26, 1865, Kirby Smith's Texas army surrendered marking the end of the American Civil War. 

On April 14, 1865, five days after Grant's victory at Appomattox, he attended a cabinet meeting in Washington. Lincoln invited him and his wife to Ford's Theater, but they declined, for upon his wife Julia's urging, they had plans to travel to Philadelphia. In a conspiracy that also targeted top cabinet members in one last effort to topple the Union, Lincoln was fatally shot by John Wilkes Booth at the theater and died the next morning. Many, including Grant himself, thought that he had been a target in the plot, and during the subsequent trial, the government tried to prove that Grant had been stalked by Booth's conspirator Michael O'Laughlen. Andrew Johnson was President. Ulysses S. Grant was a commanding general from 1865 to 1869. He enforced Reconstruction policies in former Confederate states and supervised the Native American wars in the western Plains. Grant saved Robert E. Lee's life from being executed for treason. Grant wanted the Freedmen's Bureau to exist. Grant and Johnson broke down their political relationship over accusations of lying and corruption among both people. Grant became very popular among Radical Republicans. When the Republican Party met at the 1868 Republican National Convention in Chicago, the delegates unanimously nominated Grant for president and Speaker of the House Schuyler Colfax for vice president. Back then, many Republicans promoted equal civil and political rights to all and African American enfranchisement or voting rights. The Democrats, having abandoned Johnson, nominated former governor Horatio Seymour of New York for president and Francis P. Blair of Missouri for vice president. The Democrats wanted no suffrage for black Americans and complete restoration of former Confederate states to the Union. 

Grant's 1862 General Order No. 11 became an issue during the presidential campaign; he sought to distance himself from the order, saying "I have no prejudice against sect or race, but want each individual to be judged by his own merit." The Democrats and their Klan supporters focused mainly on ending Reconstruction, intimidating black people and Republicans, and returning control of the South to the white Democrats and the planter class, alienating War Democrats in the North. An example was the murder of Republican Congressman James M. Hinds in Arkansas by a Klansman in October 1868, as Hinds campaigned for Grant. Grant won the popular vote by 300,000 votes out of 5,716,082 votes cast, receiving an Electoral College landslide of 214 votes to Seymour's 80. Seymour received a majority of white voters, but Grant was aided by 500,000 votes cast by black people, winning him 52.7 percent of the popular vote. He lost Louisiana and Georgia, primarily due to Ku Klux Klan violence against African-American voters. At the age of 46, Grant was the youngest president yet elected, and the first president after the nation had outlawed slavery. President Ulysses S. Grant was President from 1868 to 1877. On March 4, 1869, Grant was sworn in as the eighteenth President of the United States by Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase. In his inaugural address, Grant urged the ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment, while large numbers of African Americans attended his inauguration. He also urged that bonds issued during the Civil War should be paid in gold and called for "proper treatment" of Native Americans and encouraged their "civilization and ultimate citizenship." 

 

 

 

Many of his cabinet picks were praised and criticized. Washburne resigned. In March 1872, Grant signed legislation that established Yellowstone National Park, the first national park. Grant was sympathetic to women's rights; including support of female suffrage, saying he wanted "equal rights to all citizens."  He appointed Edward S. Salomon territorial governor of Washington, the first time an American Jewish man occupied a governor's seat. Grant was sympathetic to the plight of persecuted Jewish people. In November 1869, reports surfaced of the Russian Czar Alexander II punishing 2,000 Jewish families for smuggling by expelling them to the interior of the country. In response, Grant publicly supported the Jewish American B'nai B'rith petition against the Czar. In December 1869, Grant appointed a Jewish journalist as Consul to Romania, to protect Jewish people from "severe oppression." Grant wanted to limit religious indoctrination in public school, but his amendment proposal failed in Congress. In October 1871, under the Morrill Act, Grant prosecuted hundreds of Utah Mormon polygamists, including Mormon leader Brigham Young. Grant was a much more progressive President on civil rights than Presidents before him. 

 

On March 18, 1869, Grant signed into law equal rights for blacks, to serve on juries and hold office, in Washington D.C., and in 1870 he signed into law the Naturalization Act that gave foreign blacks citizenship. During his first term, Reconstruction took precedence. Republicans controlled most Southern states, propped up by Republican-controlled Congress, northern money, and southern military occupation. Grant advocated the ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment that said states could not disenfranchise African Americans. Within a year, the three remaining states—Mississippi, Virginia, and Texas—adopted the new amendment—and were admitted to Congress. Grant put military pressure on Georgia to reinstate its black legislators and adopt the new amendment. Georgia complied, and on February 24, 1871, its Senators were seated in Congress, with all the former Confederate states represented, the Union was completely restored under Grant. Under Grant, for the first time in American history, Black-American males served in the United States Congress, all from the Southern states. President Grant used the Congress and the Justice Department to prosecute the Klan for acts of violence against black people (via three Enforcement Acts). These laws crushed the Klan temporarily. Grant's Attorney General Amos T. Akerman fought the Klan. The Klan was gone for a time, and many African Americans were voted into the South. By Grant's 2nd term, the North retreated from Reconstruction. Southern conservative whites called the Redeemers formed armed groups like the Red Shirts and the White League to overturn Republican rule (via violent, intimidation, and voter fraud including racism).  Grant ended the Brooks–Baxter War, bringing Reconstruction in Arkansas to a peaceful conclusion. He sent troops to New Orleans in the wake of the Colfax massacre and disputes over the election of Governor William Pitt Kellogg. Grant recalled Sheridan and most of the federal troops from Louisiana. Grant signed the Civil Rights Act of 1875, but it was not readily enforced. The Great Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction forever. It caused the Democrats to break their promises and continue Jim Crow apartheid. Grant was wrong to desire Native Americans to embrace white culture via assimilation without accepting their own culture. Wars existed and Major General Oliver Otis Howard negotiated peace with Apache leader Cochise. Life is no fairly tale. The Native Americans were victims of an overt genocide campaign via the Great Sioux War, the Battle of Little Big Horn, and the Black Hills Gold Rush. Many U.S. forces intentionally killed bison to harm Native American people. Grant failed to annex the Dominican Republic as part of his Monroe Doctrine agenda. Grant won his 2nd term, because of the federal prosecution of the Klan, a strong economy, debt reduction, lower tariffs, and tax reductions. 

 

 

Financial corruption and the Panic of 1873 ended the Grant Presidency. After leaving the White House, Grant said he "was never so happy in my life". The Grants left Washington for New York, to attend the birth of their daughter Nellie's child, staying at Hamilton Fish's residence. Calling themselves "waifs", the Grants toured Cincinnati, St. Louis, Chicago, and Galena, without a clear idea of where they would live afterward. Grant toured the world. He worked with the Hayes administration. Grant mourned the assassination of Garfield. Ulyssess S. Grant wrote his memoirs before his death in 1885. He was 63 years old.  The Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant was a critical and commercial success. Julia Grant received about $450,000 in royalties (equivalent to $13,000,000 in 2020). People mourned his passing nationwide. Grant's body was laid to rest in Riverside Park, first in a temporary tomb, and then—twelve years later, on April 17, 1897—in the General Grant National Memorial, also known as "Grant's Tomb", the largest mausoleum in North America. Ulysses S. Grant's greatest accomplishment was his promotion of laws to advance equality for black Americans. He made the error of his treatment of Native Americans and not getting a handling of financial corruption during his 2nd term. Ulysses S. Grant was a Union General who legitimate fought to end the Confederacy once and for all. His legacy will be debated for years to come, but he remains a prominent figure of world history indeed. 

 

 

Rutherford B. Hayes

 

The 19th President of the United States of America was Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1893). He was the first President to have office as President after Reconstruction. He served in the Union Army and the House of Representatives before he assumed the office of Presidency. He was born in Delaware, Ohio to Rutherford Hayes Jr. and Sophia Birchard. His father died early. His mother, Sophia, led the family. Hayes was close to Sophia's younger brother Sardis (or Hayes's uncle). His ancestors came from Scotland who came to Connecticut in 1625. His great grandfather, Ezekiel Hayes was a militia captain in Connecticut during the American Revolutionary War. His mother's ancestors migrated to Vermont for a time. Hayes attended common schools in Delaware, Ohio and enrolled in 1836 at the Methodist Norwalk Seminary in Norwalk, Ohio. At the Webb School, he learned Latin and ancient Greek. He attended Kenyon College in Gambier in 1838. He had a fun time there. He joined many student societies and later was interested in Whig politics. Some of his classmates were Stanley Matthews and John Celivergos Zachos. Hayes graduated Phi Beta Kappa and with highest honors in 1842 plus addressed the class as its valedictorian. Hayes studied law in Columbus, Ohio, and then he studied at Harvard Law School in 1843. He graduated with a LL.B, and he was admitted to the Ohio bar in 1845. Hayes opened his own law officer in Lower Sandusky (now Fremont). He gradually gained more clients and represented his uncle Sardis in a real estate litigation. He was ill in 1843. He visited family in New England. Hayes moved into Cincinnati. By 1850, Rutherford B. Hayes opened his own law office with John W. Herron, a lawyer from Chillicothe. He joined Cincinnati Literary Society, the Odd Fellows Club, and attended the Episcopal Church in Cincinnati yet not being a member. 

 

Hayes would later marry Lucy Webb. They were engaged in 1851 and married on December 30, 1852, at Lucy's mother's house. They gave birth to many children. Lucy and Hayes would be abolitionists. Hayes also defended slaves who had escaped and were accused under the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. Cincinnati was a free city across the Ohio River from Kentucky, which was a slave state back then. Hayes was a stanch abolitionist, so he worked on the behalf of black people who escaped slavery. The Republicans took note of this. The Civil War came. Hayes at first wanted the Union to let the Confederates go. Ohio voted for Lincoln in 1860. Cincinnati voters turned against the Republican Party after secession. Many don't know that many people from Cincinnati came from the South. Many voted for the Democrats and for the bigoted Know-Nothings. Hayes was gone from the city solicitor's office by being voted out. Hayes worked in a law and joined Union forces after the Confederates illegally bombed on Fort Sumter in 1861. Rutherford B. Hayes was promoted to major of the 23rd Regiment of Ohio Volunteer Infantry. His friend and college classmate Stanley Matthews was appointed lieutenant colonel. Hayes trained for battle. Hayes's regiment fought Confederates at the Battle of South Mountain. Hayes and his brigade later fought at the Shenandoah Valley for the Valley Campaigns of 1864. Hayes and his forces pushed the rebels southward. Hayes had a victory at Fisher's Hill on September 22 and one more at Cedar Creek on October 19. Hayes was promoted to brigadier general and major general. Hayes was praised by General Ulyssess S. Grant. Hayes visited Washington D.C. and observed the Grand Review of the Armies. He and the 23rd Ohio returned to their home state. After the Civil War, Hayes won the U.S. House of Representatives election. He voted as a moderate Republican, but he voted with Radical Republicans on some issues.

 

Hayes voted for the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States of Constitution. The bill passed both houses of Congress in June 1866. Hayes wanted black freed people to have legal protections along with the South being restored to the Union. Andrew Johnson wanted to readmit seceded states quickly without laws to protect black people in the South. Hayes disagreed with Johnson on that point. Hayes worked to help pass the Civil Rights Act of 1866. He later ran and won the election to be Governor of Ohio. He was a Republican Governor with a Democratic legislature, so he was limited in what he wanted to do. His political views were more moderate than the Republican platform, but he agreed with the proposed amendment to the Ohio state constitution that would guarantee suffrage to black male Ohioans. The amendment failed to pass by his opponent Allen G. Thurman. Governor Hayes supported the creation of a school for deaf people and a reform school for girls. He supported the impeachment of President Andrew Johnson. Hayes ran for governor again to promote equal rights for black people in Ohio. Hayes associated his Democratic opponent George H. Pendleton with Confederate sympathies and disunion. Hayes won reelection, and Republican took the legislature. So, Ohio ratified the 15th Amendment to the United States Constitution. That gave black men suffrage or voting rights. His 2nd term was better. Suffrage expanded. There was a state Agricultural and Mechanical College (to be Ohio State University). He wanted state taxes to be reduced and reform the state prison system. He retired from politics temporary in 1872. He paid off his debts during the Panic of 1873 and became Governor a third time. He ran for President in 1786. Hayes campaigned on civil service reform. There was a debate on who won the election. So, Hayes compromised to win the election in exchange for federal troops to leave the South. This allowed Democrats to control Southern states politically and extend Jim Crow apartheid for nearly 100 years afterward. Rutherford B. Hayes was inaugurated on March 4, 1877. Hayes wanted a gold standard and civil service reform. The Democrats never considered him the real President because of the electoral commission that allowed him to be President. Hayes supported Reconstruction policies, but he wanted to end Reconstruction immediately. The problem was that Reconstruction wasn't given enough time to grant black people full equality and justice. The racist backlash didn't end from the neo-Confederates. The Democratic Congress prevent Hayes to defend the rights of black people in the South. Hayes failed to get the South to accept legal racial equality and allow Congress to send funds to enforce civil rights laws. By this time, the Klan, the Red Shirts, and other terrorist groups harmed black people in America. Hayes wanted federal office workers to not make campaign contributions in party politics. 

 

By 1880, Hayes quickly forced Secretary of the Navy Richard W. Thompson to resign after Thompson accepted a $25,000 salary for a nominal job offered by French engineer Ferdinande de Lesseps to promote a French canal in Panama. The Great Railroad Strike in 1877 was about workers seeking just pay. Some protests were peaceful, and others involved riots. Federal troops came to break up a strike against a private company. Hayes deal with silver coins, greenbacks, and foreign policy. He worked with Mexico to stop bandits crossing into Texas. Hayes opposed the racist Chinese Exclusion Act of 1879 (which wanted to ban any Chinese person to immigrant into America). It was passed after Hayes had left office. Hayes was wrong to promote a policy of making Native Americans to assimilate into white culture. Hayes believed that this would cause peace among Native peoples and whites, but Native Americans deserve their own independent autonomy on their own terms. Wars against Native Americans continued like the surrender of Chief Joseph in Montana (and William T. Sherman ordered Native Americans to Indian Territory in Kansas). There was the Nez Perce war and the White River War. Hayes opposed alcohol, so he banned alcohol in the White House. Hayes didn't want to run for re-election. He consulted the future President James A. Garfield on many issues. Hayes invested in educational charities after his Presidency. He worked at the Ohio State University at the Board of Trustees. In 1889, Hayes gave a speech to encourage black students to apply for scholarships from the Slater Fund, one of the charities with which he was affiliated. One such student was W.E.B. DuBois who received a scholarship in 1892. Hayes wanted better prison conditions. He wrote in his diary about economic inequality and how it is wrong to see the disparity of the rich and the poor. Hayes mourned his wife's death. He loved his children and grandchildren. Hayes also in 1890 chaired the Lake Mohonk Conference on the Negro Question. This was a group of reformers to talk about racial issues at upstate New York. He later died of a heart attack at his home on January 17, 1893, at the age of 70. His last words were, "I know that I'm going where Lucy is." Hayes's body is interred in Oakwood Cemetery. Rutherford B. Hayes' legacy is not known to many people. He was not like Andrew Johnson who rejected any equality. He was not a radical Republican. Yet, he did many positive things for Ohio and for the nation. He was not perfect, and Hayes genuinely sought to help the lives of many Americans. He supported voting rights for black people, and he endorsed civil service reform. Rutherford B. Hayes remains a transitional President who saw the end of one era and the start of a new American era of history.  

 

 

 

James A. Garfield

 

Republican President James Abram Garfield (1831-1881) served from March 4, 1881 to 6 months later. He was a legislator, lawyer, and Civil War military officer. He was the only President elected while serving as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives. He was born in Moreland Hills, Ohio. He was the youngest of five children. His ancestor, Edward Garfield, immigrated from Hillmorton, Warwickshire, England to Massachusetts from ca. 1630. James Garfield was born in a long cabin. Abram or James's father was born in Worchester, New York. He came to Ohio to visit Mehitabel Ballow. She was married, so Abram married her sister Eliza (who was born in New Hampshire). James was named after an older brother who died in infancy. Abram and Eliza Garfield joined the Church of Church. This influenced James's life. James was close to his mother after his father died. Garfield love his mother's stories about his ancestors like his Welsh great great grandfathers and his ancestor who served as a knight of Caerphilly Castile. Garfield was poor and fatherless, so his peers mocked him. He sought peace by reading books constantly. He left home in 1847 when he was 16 years old. Garfield worked on a canal boat to manage mules that pulled it. Horatio Alger was inspired by this when Alger wrote Garfield's campaign biography in 1880. James came into school at the Geauga Seminary near Chester Township, Geauga County, Ohio. He excelled as a student. He married his classmate Lucretia Rudolph. He worked as a teacher and carpenter's assistant. He became a born again Christian. He graduated Phi Beta Kappa from Williams College (in Williamstown, Massachusetts). He was inspired by the abolitionist atmosphere at Williams to go into politics. He campaigned for Republican John C. Fremont in 1856. He had 7 children with Lucretia. James was admitted to the bar in 1861 after being registered to read law at the office of attorney Albert Gallatin Riddle (in Cleveland). The American Civil War came. Abraham Lincoln was President, and Garfield saw the war as a crusade against Slave Power. Garfield served as a colonel at first in the 42nd Ohio Infantry regime. He filled in the ranks. He joined the Army of the Ohio under Brigadier General Don Carlos Buell. Garfield used his troops to drive out rebel forces in Kentucky. He fought in the Battle of Middle Creek on January 9, 1862. Garfield was soon promoted to Brigadier General. Garfield wanted the defeated forces in Kentucky to have amnesty if they returned to their homes, lived peaceably, and remained loyal to the Union. Garfield helped General Grant's forces to defeat Confederate General Albert Sidney Johnston's troops in Mississippi at the Battle of Shiloh. Garfield was sick with jaundice and had great weight loss. He survived. Garfield continued to fight in the Civil War, and he supported Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation. He said that he marveled at the "strange phenomenon in world's history, when a second rate Illinois lawyer is the instrument to utter words which shall form an epoch memorable in all future ages."

 

James A. Garfield wanted the abolition of slavery. He believed that the leaders of the Confederacy had forfeited their constitutional rights which is true. He wanted the confiscation of Southern plantations and even exile or execution of rebellion leaders as a means to ensure a permanent end to slavery. Garfield wanted Congress to determination what legislation was needed to secure equal justice to all loyal person, without regard to color. He was more supportive of President Abraham Lincoln when he took action against slavery. When he was in Congress, Garfield was once the only Republican vote to end bounties in military recrutes. He wanted to improve the conscription law. Garfield was supported a gold standard and opposed the greenback under influence from Chase. He voted with the Radical Republicans in passing the Wade Davis Bill designed to give Congress more authority over Reconstruction, but it was defeated by Lincoln's pocket veto. Garfield reluctantly supported Lincoln's re-election. Lincoln and Garfield were re-elected. Later, Garfield took up in law in 1865 to improve his personal finances. He praised Abraham Lincoln after Lincoln's assassination. Garfield supported black suffrage as he supported abolition. Garfield reluctantly supported President Johnson's policy of rapid restoration of Southern states (as an experiment). Garfield said that Johnson was either crazy or drunk with opium when he vetoes a bill that would extend the life of the Freedmen's Bureau. Garfield wanted to limit Johnson's powers over scandals. Johnson was impeached but not kicked out of office. James Garfield ratified the 15th Amendment in 1870 as a triumph. He favored George's readmission to the Union as a matter of right, not politics. Garfield called the Klan terrorists, but he was wrong to oppose the Ku Klux Klan Act in 1871. Garfield supported the gold standard. 

 

 

The Credit Mobilier scandal involved railroads. Many people Garfield play fast and loose with the facts involving the scandal. Garfield supported the reform of the civil service. By 1880, he was running for President. Garfield ran against the Democrat Hancock. Garfield won much of the North and Midwest, but Hancock won the South and Missouri. Garfield reminded voters that the Democratic Party was responsible for secession and the Civil War. Hancock wanted tariff to be just a local issue which caused Garfield to win the North. James A. Garfield wanted a peaceful cabinet. He nominated many people. In his inaugural address, he wanted civil rights for African Americans. He wanted education, the gold standard, and an end to Mormon polygamy. He nominated Stanley Matthews to the Supreme Court. Garfield wanted civil service reform, and there were calls for reform of the Post Office Department. He wanted education to help black Americans. By this time, many northern white people lost interest in African American rights, so Congress didn't pass federal funding for universal education during Garfield's term. He worked to support African Americans in his cabinet like Frederick Douglass, Robert Elliot, John M. Langastone, and Blanche K. Bruce. He wanted economic policies to gain Southern support for the Republican Party. That is why he supported Senator William Mahone and his Readjuster Party movement. Blaine assisted him on foreign policy matters. He wanted freer trade in Latin America and in other places. He wanted a canal through Panama. Garfield wanted to strengthen the Navy. James A. Garfield was assassinated by Charles J. Guiteau (a Stalwart who was mentally ill). Charles wanted Garfield gone to end the interparty feud in the Republican Party. Garfield was shot by 2 bullets. Robert Tood Lincoln, or Lincoln's son, was there when it happened. Garfield might have lived with today's medical technology, but he passed away. There were unsterilized fingers in his surgery. Guiteau was executed on June 30, 1882. James A. Garfield was on a train and his casket was lying in state at the Capitol Rotunda. President James A. Garfield was so early in his Presidency, and we don't know what he would have done had he lived longer. His legacy is a mystery in that he never had the chance to formulate his complete Presidential legacy. He made more achievement before his Presidency like being an orator, lawyer, Union general, and advocate of many Reconstruction policies. President James A. Garfield certainly was a person in the midst of massive changes in American society indeed. 

 

 

Chester A. Arthur

 

The 21st President of the United States was the Republican Chester A. Arthur (1829-1886). He was the vice President to James A. Garfield too. He was immediately President after Garfield's evil assassination. He was born in Fairfield, Vermont. His parents are Malvina Stone and William Arthur. He has English and Welsh descent. Her mother's paternal grandfather, Uriah Stone, had served in the Continental Army during the American Revolution. William Arthur was born in 1796 in Dreen, Cullybackey, County, Ireland to a Presbyterian family of Scots-Irish descent. Chester Arthur's parents met in Durham, Quebec, near the Vermont border (and married on April 12, 1821, soon after a meeting). His family moved into Vermont. William Arthur studied the law. Chester Alan Arthur had many siblings. He was raised in upstate New York at Schenectady, New York. Arthur was slandered by many of not being a natural born citizen. Arthur lived in many New York towns. He supported the Whig Party and joined other Whigs in support of Henry Clay. Chester Arthur joined the Fenian Brotherhood which is an Irish republican organization founded in America. He showed this support by wearing a green coat. Arthur enrolled at Union College in 1845. Arthur was a teacher in Schaghticoke and worked on his law career. Arthur was admitted to the New York bar in 1854, and he joined Culver's firm. This would be later renamed Culver, Parker, and Arthur. Chester Arthur became a well-known New York lawyer. He worked with attorney John Jay (the grandson of the Founders John Jay). Arthur and the firm with Culver and Jay worked to free many slaves in a habeas corpus action against slaveowner Jonathan Lemmon (who was from Virginia). Lemmon passed through New York with 8 slaves. They were freed as New York state law banned slavery. Chester Arthur also represented the black woman Elizabeth Jennings Graham (she was denied a seat on a streetcar because she was black). Arthur won the case, and that verdict led to the desegregation of the New York City streetcar lines.  

  

Chester A. Athur courted Ellen Herndon, the daughter of William Lewis Herndon (a Virginia naval officer). They were engaged and married at Calvary Episcopal Church in Manhattan, NYC. They had 3 children. He worked in law and legal practices. During the Civil War, Arthur was appointed to the military staff of Governor Edwin D. Morgan as engineer in chief. He worked as a brigadier general and worked at the state militia's quartmaster department. He helped to house troops in New York state. Arthur came to fight in the war. He returned to participating law. He attended the 2nd inauguration of President Abraham Lincoln in 1865. after the Civil War, Arthur was once part of the Morgan Republican machine. Arthur raised funds for Ulysses S. Grant's candidacy for the Presidency. He raised money for Grant's election in 1868. Tammany Hall was a Democratic machine who worked for Grant's opponent, former New York Governor Horatio Seymour. Arthur worked in the New York City Tax Commission. Hayes wanted to reform the patronage system. Arthur was offered to resign because of controversies of the reform system, but he refused. He was vice President with President Garfield. Arthur wanted Garfield to fill certain positions with fellow New York Stalwarts. He was an ally of Conkling, but Garfield appointed Blaine as Secretary of States. Baline was Conkling's arch enemy. Arthur took the oath of office of President on September 21, 1881. His sister was theWhite House hostess for her widowed brother. Chester Arthur wanted civil service reforms. He signed the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act into law on January 16, 1883. The law applied to 10 percent of federal jobs. He appointed members of the Civil Service Commons and named reformers as commissions like Borman Bridgman Eaton, John Milton Gregory, and Leroy D. Toman. His Presidency saw a surplus. He wanted a simplistic tariff system. He wanted tariff cuts. He endorsed trade in the world. Arthur signed the Chinese Exclusion Act into law on May 6, 1882. He was wrong to sign that law. That law banned all Chinese immigration into America for 10 years, except diplomats, teachers, students, merchants, and travelers. Arthur reformed the Navy to strengthen it. New ships came by 1889. Arthur dealt with the question of civil rights. Democratic leaders in the South didn't want to protect the civil rights of black southerners. Reconstruction ended by this time. Black people lost tons of rights. Arthur wanted a coalition with Readjusters. Arthur's coalition worked in Virginia for a little, but the Readjuster movement in Virginia soon ended. Arthur disagreed with the Supreme Court struck down civil rights in the Civil Rights cases of 1883. It ended the Civil Rights Act of 1875 that Arthur opposed that decision. Congress didn't pass more legislation. Arthur intervened to overturn a court marttial ruling against the black West Point cadet, Johnson Whittkaer. Judge Advocate General of the Army, David G. Swaim found the prosecution's case against Whittaker to be illegal and based on racial bias. 

 

 

Garfield opposed polygamy in Utah, so he signed the Edmunds Act in 1882 that made polygamy a federal crime. It barred polygamists both from public office and the right to vote. Arthur wanted investments in fundings for Native Americans. He wanted an allotment system to allow individual Native Americans, not whole tribes would own land. The Dawes Act was part of that system. The problem was that most of the lands were resold at low prices to white speculators. He wanted to open up the Crow Creek Reservation in the Dakota territory to settlers by executive order in 1885. It was revoked by President Glover Cleveland. He had a kidney disease. Arthur left office in 1885 as different factions of Republicans didn't support him. He returned to his law practice at Arthur, Knevals, and Ransom. He was getting more ill. He wanted nearly all of his papers, personal and official burned. He died after a cerebral hemorrhage and never regained consciousness. He was only 57 when he passed. His funeral was held at the Church of the Heavenly Rest in New York City. His funeral was attended by Hayes, Cleveland, etc. He was buried at the Albany Rural Cemetry in Menands, New York with is ancestors. Arthur was physically strained and had an obscure legacy as President being short lived. Chester A. Arthur was a President who had mixture of legitimate and wrong policies. He saw the end of the 19th century being in a state of evolution on many fronts.

 

 

Conclusion

 

This era of Presidents (from the mid to late 1800's) saw some of the most important developments in the history of the United States of America. They saw a nation that was from half the nation being enslaved to legal slavery being abolished in American society. They saw a nation filled with more decentralized state power to a nation with a higher level of federal government involvement. One of the products of the American Civil War was the increase of the role of the federal government in the lives of the American people. The 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the United States Constitution were all about growing the power of the federal government to expand rights to human beings. Progress was made in many areas of life. Yet, there was a very long way to go. Racial pogroms existed against black Americans, the Gilded Age started to harm the rights of workers, and we see the rights of women being suppressed too. The Presidents, during this time, didn't do enough to treat Native Americans with dignity and respect. Reconstruction was a glorious development in human history, but the white racist reactionary backlash ruined its chances to grow into revolutionary change for black people. That is why the Black Codes and Jim Crow apartheid flourished after the end of Reconstruction. The end of this era saw more immigration in America, the continuation of the Guided Age, the growth of Western imperialism, and a prelude to WWI. America changed in many directions. America's legacy is always a mixture of progress and the bigoted backlash against progressive changes being merged together. That is why we earnest fight for America to reach its highest potential in what America ought to be (which is a land for justice for all without exceptions). The next era of Presidents will not only see war and global imperial expansion. It would also see new social and civil rights movements (like by Mary McLeod Bethune, W.E.B. DuBois, Booker T. Washington, Mary Terrell, Trotter, etc.) that would combat injustices and seek real change too. 

By Timothy