Watergate existed in stages. As early as July 1, 1971, David Young and Egil "Bud" Krough wrote a memo suggesting the creation of what would later be the "White House Plumbers" in response to the leak of the Pentagon Papers by Daniel Ellsberg. The Pentagon Papers exposed the desperation of American political elites in using exaggerations and deception in advancing the Vietnam War. By August 21, 1971, Nixon's Enemies List was started by White House aides (Nixon may not have been aware of it) to use the federal government to target progressive activists. On September 3, 1971, "White House Plumbers" E. Howard Hunt, G. Gordon Liddy, and others break into the offices of Daniel Ellsberg's psychiatrist Lewis Fielding looking for material that might discredit Ellsberg, under the direction of John Ehrlichman or his staff within the White House. This was the Plumbers' first major operation.
By early 1972, the Plumbers, at this stage assigned to the Committee to Re-Elect the President (abbreviated CRP, but often mocked by the acronym CREEP), had become frustrated at the lack of additional assignments they were being asked to perform, and that any plans and proposals they suggested were being rejected by CRP. Liddy and Hunt took their complaints to the White House – most likely to Charles Colson – and requested that the White House start putting pressure on CRP to assign them new operations. It is likely that both Colson and White House Chief of Staff H.R. Haldeman did so, starting the train of events that led to the Watergate break-ins a few months later. This narrative was confirmed in the famous "Cancer on the Presidency" conversation between Nixon and White House Counsel John Dean on March 21, 1973. By May 2, 1972, J. Edgar Hoover died, and L. Patrick Gray was appointed acting FBI director.
On June 17, 1972, five men were arrested in a break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate hotel and office complex in Washington, D.C. Events evolve quickly. By June 20, 1972, President Richard Nixon and his aide H.R. Haldeman discussed Watergate. Later, prosecutors find an 18-minute gap in the tape of that conversation. By September 15, 1972, seven men, including two former White House aides, were indicted in the Watergate break-in. From January 11-20, 1973, five of the men plead guilty to conspiracy, burglary, and wiretapping. Two men stand trial and are convicted. By April 30, 1973, Haldeman and Nixon aide John D. Ehrlichman resigned. White House aide John Dean was fired in the same day too.
July 24, 1973 was when the Supreme Court ruled that Nixon must provide the tapes and documents subpoenaed by special Watergate prosecutor Archibald Cox. On October 20, 1973, Cox refused to compromise on the tapes, and Nixon ordered Attorney General Elliot Richardson to fire Cox. Richardson refused and resigned in protest. Acting Attorney General Robert Bork fired Cox, and this was known as the Saturday Night Massacre. On July 24, 1974, the Supreme Court ruled that Richard Nixon must hand over the tapes. The tapes exposed everything. From July 27-30, 1974, the House Judiciary Committee approves three articles of impeachment: obstruction of justice, misuse of powers and violation of his oath of office, and failure to comply with House subpoenas. On August 5, 1974, the smoking gun tape is released to the public. In the recording of a June 23, 1972, conversation, Nixon is heard approving a proposal from his chief of staff to press the FBI to drop its investigation of the Watergate break-in six days earlier. Republicans who had intended to support Nixon in an impeachment trial abandon him. Even Republican Senator Barry Goldwater doesn't support Nixon anymore. By August 9, 1974, Richard Nixon resigned. On September 8, 1974, President Gerald Ford pardons Nixon.
By the 1950's, modern pop, rock, R&B, jazz, doo- wop, swing, country, and other genres of music were international and powerful. The 1950's saw the prelude to other musical movements spreading across the world. By the mid to late 1950's, rock and roll dominated popular music. It was music created by black people mixing rhythm and blues, the spirituals, and gospel music. Rock and roll had a blues origin too. In 1951, Cleveland, Ohio disc jockey Alan Freed began playing rhythm and blues music for a multi-racial audience and is credited with first using the phrase "rock and roll" to describe the music. The electric guitar was popularized by Chuck Berry, Link Wray, and Scotty Moore. Chuck Berry and Little Richard were pioneers of Rock and Roll music. Berry had showmanship that would be years ahead of its time. Les Paul did guitar music too. The mother of Rock and Roll would be the expert guitarist Sister Rosetta Tharpe, who performed gospel too. Bill Haley and His Comets, Bo Diddley, Fats Domino, Jerry Lee Lewis, Big Joe Burner, and Gene Vincent showed early rock sounds. Elvis Presley was a very popular rock and roll artist. He was born in the South in Tennessee. He learned rock and soul music from black people (like B.B. King), and he developed his style. The modern-day Rock and Roll Era grew after the film The Blackboard Jungle. The film's use of Bill Haley and His Comets' "(We’re Gonna) Rock Around the Clock" during the opening credits caused a national sensation when teenagers started dancing in the aisles. The conservative artist Pat Boone is known for his hits like Two Hearts, Two Kisses, etc. Many people complained about Boone covering black R&B hits for mainstream pop acceptance. Little Richard, Glenn Miller, Chuck Berry, and Frank Sinatra had a huge following. Elvis was a pop sensation among teenagers especially. Back in the day, America was a much more conservative nation. So, even Elvis dancing with his legs moving was considered back then as too vulgar. Dick Clark hosted American Bandstand to host pop and rock artists, starting in 1957. Many of the artists like teens loved by the late 1950's were Bobby Darin, Ricky Nelson, Frankie Avalon, Paul Anka, Neil Sedaka, Bobby Rydell, Connie Francis, and Fabian Forte. Ritchie Valens (who is a Hispanic American), The Big Bopper, and Buddy Holly passed away early in their lives. R&B-influenced acts like The Crows, The Penguins, The El Dorados and The Turbans all scored major hits, and groups like The Platters, with songs including "The Great Pretender" (1955), and The Coasters with humorous songs like "Yakety Yak" (1958), ranked among the most successful rock and roll acts of the period.
Crooners like Dorothy Kirsten and Bing Crosby continued to make music. Stax Records would develop in 1957 showing a new era of Southern soul and Memphis soul styles. By 1959, Sam Cooke's Sar label would exist, and Berry Gordy's Motown Records would exist. Sam Cooke was one of the best vocalists in history with songs about love/romance and politics. Motown, even in 1959, had huge popularity and power that inspired future black artists. Motown is beloved by people of every color as well. There is no music of today without the influence of Motown Records. Otis Redding had his start in the 1950's too. Big Mama Thornton had the like of Hound Dog too. Country music by the 1950's was in abundance, and black artists were in Country music too from its earliest days. Ray Charles, Nina Simone, and Dinah Washington during the 1950's expressed jazz music in a widespread fashion. Harry Belafonte popularizing the Calypso music of the Caribbean is represented in the song Banana Boat Song from his 1956 album of Calypso. The Weavers, Pete Seeger, Woody Guthrie, The Kingston Trio, Odetta, and several other performers were instrumental in launching the folk music revival of the 1950s and 1960s. In Europe, Africa, Oceania, Asia, and other places of the world, music was never bland. It was filled with life and vibrant influences.
The fight for reparations for black Americans has existed for over 100 years. From 1890-1896, we know about the National Ex Slave Mutual Relief Bounty and Pension Association. It was created to get pensions for former slaves from the Federal government as compensation and reparations for their unpaid labor and suffering. It was officially founded in 1896 and chartered in 1898 in Nashville, Tennessee. Former slaves Callie House and Isaiah H. Dickerson founded the group. By the early 20th century, we saw the movement of Marcus Garvey. Garvey created the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) to promote black racial pride, economic independence, and the creation of an independent Black nation in Africa. UNIA exists to this very day. Marcus Garvey passed away before the end of World War II. In 1948, many black scholars and activists unite to say that the American slave trade fits the Genocide Convention Treaty's UN definition of genocide. Regardless of if you agree with Elijah Muhammad or not, he in 1950 called for reparations. Robert Brock during the 1950's created the Reparations Movement in California. He spent over 40 years on this issue. By 1951, the Civil Rights Congress (CRC) wrote a paper entitled, "We Charge Genocide: The Crime of Government Against the Negro People.” It accused the United States government of genocide based on the UN Genocide Convention and it was presented to the United Nations at meetings in Paris in December 1951.
After CRC Secretary William L. Patterson presented the petition to the UN at a Paris meeting, the U.S. State Department forced him to surrender his passport. W. E. B. Du Bois also presented it to the UN, over the objections of Eleanor Roosevelt. Actor/activist Paul Robeson during a separation occasion also handed the document to a UN official in New York City. By the 1950's more groups organized for black reparations. In 1962, Pan African leader Queen Mother Moore and Dara Abubakari formed a group called Reparations Committee. They went on to deliver a communique to UN. In 1963, a petition of 1 million signatures was organized to back the demand for reparations for black Americans. In 1968, the Republic of New Afrika (RNA) was founded by Imari Obadele. It demanded payment by the federal government of several billion dollars in reparations to African-American descendants of slaves for the suffering due to chattel enslavement as well as the Jim Crow laws, and modern-day racism. In 1969, James Forman presented the Black Manifesto of Reparations demands at the Riverside Church in New York City. The Black Manifesto demanded that “white churches and synagogues pay reparations for Black enslavement and continuing discrimination and oppression. It had been written and delivered by former SNCC executive director, James Forman, who commandeered the pulpit of Riverside Church in New York on May 4, 1969, disrupting the regular service,” SNCC Digital reported. The opening words of the manifesto are: “We the Black people assembled in Detroit, Michigan, for the National Black Economic Development Conference are fully aware that we have been forced to come together because racist white America has exploited our resources, our minds, our bodies, our labor…We have helped to build the most industrial country in the world.”
In 1972, at the National Black Political Convention in 1972, a Reparations resolution passed by 10,000 people and presented to all of the Presidential candidates. During the 1980's, groups fought for reparations like the African Peoples Socialist Party. In 1987, there was the creation of the N'COBRA (the National Coalition of Blacks in America) that fought for reparations. Also in 1987, Dorothy Lewis Benton, the founder of Black Reparations Commission, published two informative books on reparations. In 1989, Massachusetts State Senator Bill Owens introduces Senate Bill 1621, cosponsored by Representatives Shirley Owens-Hicks and Byron Rushing. This bill is an act to provide for reparations by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts for "slavery, the slave trade, and invidious discrimination against people of African descent born or residing in the US,” ForReparations.org reported. In 1989, Congressman John Conyers’ HR40 Study Bill was initially introduced. In 1993, “The First Pan African Conference on Reparations was held in Abuja, Nigeria, April 27-29 and attended by African Americans,” The Atlanta World Daily reported. In 1994, Silas Muhammad wanted a hearing at the UN on reparations. In 1994 and in 1995, the Florida legislature passed a reparations settlement in Rosewood, Florida. It approved a “$2.1 million reparations bill to help make amends for the state turning its back on the racial violence that wiped out Rosewood, a black hamlet in Levy County." In 1999, the Tulsa Race Riot Commission launched to explore the lingering effects of the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921 during which mobs of white residents attacked Black residents and businesses of the Greenwood District in Tulsa, Oklahoma. The commission was also formed to look into reparations for the survivors and the descendants of the victims.
By the 21st century, the African American reparations movement increased more. By the year of 2000, legal strategist and Attorney Deadria Farmer-Paellmann launched a campaign to expose corporate complicity in slavery; secures\d an apology from Aetna, Inc. for it benefiting from the slave trade. HR 40 is supported more during the Chicago Alderman Dorothy Hearing. African Americans call for Reparations at the Durban 400. Randall Robinson's 2001 book called, "The Debt" uses arguments for reparations for the Trans Atlantic Slave Trade. In 2002, Attorney Deadria Farmer Paellmann continued her efforts and sues more than 20 U.S. corporations for their predecessor companies profiteering from the Trans Atlantic Slave Trade. The National African American Reparations Commission (NARRC) is launched at York College in N.Y. in 2015. By 2019, the U.S. House held a reparations hearing on Juneteenth with testimony from Ta-Nehisi Coates and Danny Glover.
It is easy to prove racism in Hollywood back then and today. For over 100 years, many stereotypes and anti-black images have been part of Hollywood's atmosphere. Two great scholars who have written and spoke on this issue are author Donald Bogle and the late Melvin Van Peebles (whose documentary about racism in Hollywood called Classified X which came out in 1998 will open anyone's eyes). Donald Bogle is one of the best writers on the history of black Hollywood. I read his books, and his literature is thorough, exciting, eloquent, and gives a full picture of the diversity of black actors and black actresses. Donald Bogle's book entitled, "Hollywood Black: The stars, The Films, the Filmmakers" with the Foreword by John Singleton was one of the greatest books that I read in my life. I read the whole book, and it has given me even a greater understanding of racism in Hollywood. Back in the day, there was a film called Birth of Nation. It was directed by D. W. Griffith. It's basically a white reactionary false view of American history from the Civil War to the end of Reconstruction. It pictured black Americans as rapists, intellectually inferior, and immature. There is no ambiguity about the vicious aspects of the movie (which was released in 1915). That is why the NAACP rightfully boycotted it nationwide. The movie had white actors in blackface, it said that Lincoln was a friend of the South, and it was probably the most racist film in history. Griffith responded to the criticism by directing the film Intolerance in 1916 (in showing stories about anti-Semitism, etc.). To his death, Griffith never apologized for the evil film of Birth of a Nation. He hypocritically claimed that his critics were intolerant, but we have the freedom of speech to criticize racist media. Therefore, the film Intolerance was made out of disingenuous motivation. Cartoons from Disney, Warner Brothers, and to other formats had overtly racist imagery during the first half of the 20th century. It was so bad that many are trying to destroy such cartoons, but their images are found all over YouTube. In Lady and the Tramp, there are anti-Asian stereotypes shown in the characters of Si and Am. There are dogs with stereotypes of Mexico and Russia. In Dumbo from 1941, we know of the crows showing stereotypical anti-black voices. The lead crow is called Jim Crow. He is voiced by the white actor Cliff Edwards. In the Jungle Book of 1968, black accents are mocked by King Louie. Racism against Native Americans is shown in 1953's Peter Pan. The Song of the South in 1946 advanced the myth of black slaves being happy in the cotton fields. Back in the day, many African American actors and actresses had very limited roles, so many of them had no choice but to play certain roles. That is why Hattie McDaniels and Mr. Robinson weren't race traitors to me. They performed charities and worked hard in their craft of acting. We understand this and the complex lives of black people back then. Also, there were always black people who fought back to promote more non-stereotypical roles back then (during the early to mid 20th century) like Paul Robeson, Dorothy Dandridge, Sidney Poitier, Canada Lee, Elizabeth Welch, Lena Horne, Ethel Waters, Cicely Tyson, Ruby Dee, Ossie Davis, and other heroes who wanted excellence and dignity involving the art of acting. Now, with the advent of the Civil Rights Movement and Black Power, many actors and actresses fought for more militant roles on screen. We have Pam Grier being in Coffy and other films like Foxy Brown outlining a heroic, superhero image of black women in the 1970's (just like other actresses). You have Shaft, Sweetback, and other films. Some films of the 1970's had powerful, positive images of black people and other images were stereotypical with pimps, violence, drugs, and other themes. Likewise, even today in our time, racism is found in Hollywood. Not everyone in Hollywood is racist, but racism exists. One example in modern times revolve around the recent emails revealed about some Sony executives being disrespectful to Kevin Hart back in 2014. The emails involved Sony executives Michael Lynton, Clint Culpepper, and Amy Pascal. Culpepper said that Hart was the w word. Pascal issued her apology. Many films now in Hollywood are not overt, but they show covert racism. There are examples of this. In Crash, the movie showed black men as cowardly, unable to stand up against injustice, and ignorant.
Now, it's the 30th year anniversary of the film Just Another Girl on the I.R.T. This film is years ahead of it time in describing the lives of many black youth in urban areas. It is a movie about a black teenage girl surviving in the New York City projects. It deals with a wide spectrum of issues like poverty, HIV/AIDS, teenage pregnancy, abortion, and family. It was directed by Leslie Harris. The teen is played by actress Ariyan A. Johnson. Other people starring in the film are Kevin Thigpen and Ebony Jerido. It was released on September 17, 1992, at the Toronto Film Festival and at March 19, 1993 in America. IRT refers to the IRT Lexington Avenue Line of the New York City Subway system. The film received funding via grants from National Endowments for the Arts, American Film Institute, New York State Council on the Arts, Brooklyn Arts Council, and it was distributed by Miramax on 200 screens in America and in 20 other countries worldwide. Airyan plays Chantel Mitchell who is a 17 year old African American junior who lives in Brooklyn, NYC. Chantel is carefree, has wit, is very smart, and goes about her dream to go to college and desire to be a doctor. Chantel wants to be seen as more than just a teen in the subway. She wants to develop her legacy. She lives with working class parents and her two younger brother. Chantel looks out for her brothers. She has mostly As and Bs in high school. Hip hop is in the movie with Chantel dancing in a party. By the early 1990's, hip hop music dominated youth culture.
She wants to graduate early, but her teachers disagree with her. Her boyfriend Tyrone (played by Kevin Thigpen) becomes romantic with her. She becomes pregnant, and she has an abortion. She has it secretly to prevent her parents to know about it. Afterward, she wonders what her future holds. The film was shot in its entirety in New York City. The film was shot in just 17 days with a budget of only $100,000. Tons of people love the film. The film helped to show the life of black Americans in an honest, raw, and vivid form. It didn't sugarcoat issues, and it expressed the everyday life of urban life. One critic said that Just Another Girl on the IRT helped to set the stage for future projects like Crooklyn, Akeelah and the Bee, and The Hate U Give. The complex life of black teenage girls is fully outlined in this movie along with the pressures from society. Leslie Harris wanted black women to be in the camera and behind the scene behind the camera too. Director Leslie Harris is a black woman who would go on to film other projects, and she was born in Cleveland, Ohio. She wanted films to capture the life of young African American teens and women. By 2022, Leslie Harris said that she had completed a screenplay for a sequel to the film.
The January 6th House Committee has been very historic in American history. With its hearings and research, we know for certain that Donald Trump and his allies worked in a far-right conspiracy to try to overthrow the 2020 Presidential election. They didn't work in this attempted coup d'état alone. They worked with members of the Oath Keepers, The Proud Boys, and other far-right groups in trying to ruin American democracy forever. Some folks have tried to ignore or minimize what took place. There can be no sugarcoating. When you witness in this year alone, rights being harmed, voting rights being suppressed, and legitimate anti-racism books being banned in numerous schools, then we realize that our nation's democracy is under threat. There is no question that the leaders of the Republican Party are dominated by Trumpism. We have a mountain of evidence to prove Trump's corruption, and the Department of Justice has that responsibility to charge Trump (plus others) for numerous crimes. With the Secret Service texts being deleted and Trump trying to still lie about the election, we have continued issues. Recent news of Secret Serice agents making final calls to their wives and families outline how serious the near coup d'état was. Also, some Secret Service deleted their message after being instructed by Congress to preserve all records from January 6th, and the Secret Service wanted Mike Pence to leave the Capitol which would possibly prevent the official counting of Electoral votes (which opened the way for Trump to declare an emergency and hijack the election). Donald Trump did nothing for hours while terrorists harmed property and people at the U.S. Capitol on January 6, 2021. Trump actually called these terrorists his "special people" and "patriots." These terrorists are not patriots but traitors. The Capitol Hill police officers were victims of assaults, slurs, and massive violence by the insurrectionists. Threats of violence at the Capitol existed long before January 6th, and investigations should happen to figure out what occurred.
Like any region of the world, the culture of Texas is very diverse. It has influenced overall American culture for centuries. In recent years, many people traveled to live in Texas from the North, the West, and parts of the South. Its culture is filled with influences from African Americans, Tejanos, Cajuns, Irish, German, English, Asian, Native American, and other human cultures. East Texas, Central Texas, North Texas, South Texas, and West Texas have their own styles and communities. The American cowboy tradition, farming, and ranching are found in Texas. Rodeo competitions are commonplace. It's the official sport of Texas. The annual Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo is the world's largest known rodeo. It is held over 20 days from late February through early March. The event begins with trail rides that originate from several points throughout the state, all of which convene at Reliant Park for a barbecue cook-off. The rodeo includes typical rodeo events, as well as concert performances from major artists and carnival rides. The Fort Worth Livestock Show and Rodeo last three weeks in late January and early February. It has many traditional rodeos, but also a cowboy rodeo, and a Mexican rodeo in recent years that both have large fan bases. State Fairs occur in Dallas and all over the state. Also, Juneteenth celebrations have originated in Texas.
In the world, music represents a large part of our culture. A lot of people underestimate the benefits of music. Music can calm people down, it can grow intellectual creativity, and it can build up one's soul. The foundation of music today in 2022 has always been old-school music. Back in the day in the United States of America, blues and jazz were prominently expressed by a wide spectrum of human beings. These genres have roots in the polyrhythmic sounds from Africa. Also, many early American music came from influences from the Americas, Europe, and Asia. With the spirituals in America from groups like the Jubilee Singers, they set up the foundation of modern-day gospel music. The spirituals also influenced the development of jazz and blues. From the blues, we see R&B music and rock and roll. Jazz is American music from the Delta at New Orleans with legends like Louis Armstrong, John Coltraine, Duke Ellington, Charlie Parker (or "Bird"), Sarah Vaughan, and other artists who took musical expression seriously. Popular artists like Nat King Cole, Bring Crosby, Frank Sinatra, Sister Rosetta Tharpe, Ella Fitzgerald, Billie Holiday, Doris Day, Connie Francis, and other icons shaped modern-day music in multifaceted ways. From the 19th century to 1960, the old school was abundant and diverse. With country music, a lot of folks don't know that black folks were in country music since its invention. The soul singers of Jackie Wilson and Sam Cooke took the country by storm. By 1960, the development of Motown was in its infancy, but its legacy has a worldwide quality and nature. The diverse genres of music gave voice to the oppression, inspiration to unsung human beings, and further strength towards human beings seeking purpose.
By Timothy
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