The Byzantium Empire
The Roman Empire wasn't the same when it was divided into its Western and Eastern Empires. The Roman Empire by the this time of the late 5th century suffered through invasions and radical changes. The Emperor divided the empire in half as a way for the Empire to efficiently govern the total Empire. Civil wars came about in the western half of the Empire. The Western Roman Empire was defeated by the Huns and other tribes by 476 A.D. Rome was sacked by invaders during that time. The Roman Empire fell because of economic, political, and social reasons. The Eastern Roman Empire evolved into the Byzantine Empire. The Eastern part of the Roman Empire was mostly stable, because it steered clear mostly of huge conflicts. The Roman Empire decided later to formed a new capital in the former Greek city of Byzantium. Constantine renamed it Constantinople. Constantinople is called Istanbul today. Istanbul is a mostly Islamic city with its Islamic architecture, Muslim culture, etc. The Byzantine Empire was a famous Empire. Its contributions still influence world societies presently including the society of the United States of America. The capital of the Byzantine Empire is located in the city of Constantinople. This city has great geographic significance. The reason is that it's located between the Black Sea and it is near the Mediterranean Sea. Therefore, a lot of trade between Asia, Europe, and Africa had to come through the Byzantine Empire. Since Constantinople experienced a great deal of trade, stability existed for a long time. Also, the city was a strategic location and Constantinople was very wealthy (including the rest of the Byzantine empire). Religiously, the leadership of this empire was once heavily Roman Catholic. This changed in 1054. In that year, there was a controversy over the worship of icons. Christian leaders in Byzantine didn't want to worship icons. The Roman Catholic Church wanted the veneration of icons. This caused a split. The Byzantine Empire soon allowed the existence of the Greek Orthodox Church by 1054 A.D. and the Catholic Church continued to dominate Western Europe (until the Protestant Reformation of the 1500's. The Protestant Reformation had its baggage, but Reformation was right to oppose the authority of the Pope. The movement was also correct to believe in the real priesthood of all believers under God). The Byzantine Empire was important in history because it allowed the preservation of Roman & Greek culture and it allowed cultural diffusion. Cultural diffusion is when culture spreads among nations. For example, there was culture diffusion in ancient China when Chinese culture (that include paper, language, other inventions, farming, etc.) spread from China into Korea (and finally into Japan).
There are tons of information that is known about the Byzantium Empire. The Eastern European region (which is the home base of the Byzantine Empire) was heavily Hellenized. That means that Eastern Europe during the early centuries of the first millennium experienced a great deal of influence from the Greek culture. This influence of Greek came about to the Byzantine Empire via the Macedonian Empire, and the Roman Empire (including from the Greek colonies in the Black Sea region). By 330 A.D. Emperor Constantine founded Constantinople as a second Rome on the site of Byzantium (This location was between the trade routes to connect the East and West). Constantine developed more administrative reforms that were introduced by the Roman Emperor Diocletian. Diocletian was a notorious Christ-hater. Constantine stabilized the coinage or the gold solidus (which was a stable currency). He made structural changes to the Army. This caused a period of military strength, stability, and prosperity under the reign of Emperor Constantine. He or Constantine granted Christianity imperial preference or basic privileges. Previous Roman Emperors would outright murder Christians. After Constantine, the Roman Empire would make Christianity its own official region. Constantine didn't believe that the Emperor should settle theological disputes among churches. He did believe in organizing ecclesiastical councils for that purpose. This is why he convened the Synod of Arles and the First Council of Nicea in claiming to be the head of the Church. The Council of Nicea allowed churches to be more centralized in Rome. The Eastern Empire didn't have as much difficulties as the Western Empire. The reasons were that the Eastern Empire had a more urban culture, it had greater financial resources, etc. Also, the leaders of the Eastern Empire paid tribute to invaders and paid foreign mercenaries. A tribute is a bribe to prevent an invader from conquering your territory. After Constantine died, there came Theodosius I. The East was ruled by Arcadius after Theodosius and the West was ruled by Honorius. Arcadius and Honorius are Theodosius I's sons. Constantinople was fortified in its walls by Theodosius II. Justinian I was the most famous Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. Justinian ruled in 527 A.D. His (who was the son of an Illyrian peasant) reign saw the Byzantine Empire recovering former territories. For example, he sent his general Belisarius to get the former province of Africa form the Vandals, who had been in control since 429 with their capital at Carthage. The Vandals were Germanic tribes that invaded Europe and Northern Africa. The Germanic tribes defeated the Roman Empire plainly speaking. Justinian paid a tribute annually to the Saddanids (or a Persian Empire in that time period). The Saddanids were just as power as the ancient Roman Empire in military strength and culture. Justinian's wife was Empress Theodora. She supported Monophysite Patriach Anthimus I of Constantinople, but Justinian didn't. Justinian's forces captured Rome by December 17, 546. By 529 A.D., The Emperor allowed a 10 man commission chaired by Tribonian to revise the ancient Roman legal code to form a new code called Codex Justinianus. A Codex means code or a complication of rules. The Codex Justinianus was updated and reorganized into the system of law used for the rest of the Byzantine era. The Corpus Juris Civilis is the total composition of the Byzantine laws (it includes changes to old Roman laws as well). The Corpus Juris Civilis is also called the Justinian Code (made up of 4 parts called the Code, the Digest, Institutes, and Novels). The purpose of the Justinian Code was the organize Roman law and create rules that interpret Roman laws. The Justinian Code united church and state by making Christianity the state region of the empire. There are laws that forbid certain pagan practices like you can be experience something similar to an indictment of murder (if persons were present in a pagan sacrifice). Much of the Justinian Code influenced the laws of Western Europe. Even today, the Justinian code (made up of civil law) is related the European Union's civil laws. Justinian's rule caused Byzantine to experience its peak of culture and prosperity.
Also, architectural achievements were made during his reign and throughout the era of the Byzantine Empire. One great example of this architecture was the completion of the church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. Today, the church of Hagia Sophia has been transformed into a famous mosque. It was finished in 562 A.D. Hagia Sophia means Holy Spirit. Justinian died in November 16, 565 in Constantinople. Byzantine expanded its trade under Justinian and other Emperors. Trade is important in ancient civilization in numerous ways. Trade can allow goods to come into various locations. Trade can build economies in locations and trade and cause more cultural diffusion. Cultural diffusion is the spreading of cultures between nations or civilizations in a fluid fashion. Greek Orthodox Christianity and the Byzantine Empire allowed people in the Byzantine Empire to form their own unique style of art and architecture. One of the easiest ways to under Byzantine art was to understand mosaics. Mosaics are forms of art that use little sections (made up of clay, and other materials) to create elaborate images. Much of the art existed in Constantinople. This art spread into Europe and across the world. Mosaics are one dimensional, but they are highly colored in advanced patterns. One famous mosaic image is the image of Christ (being flanked by Mary and John the Baptist) as found in the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. The Hagia Sophia is a domed church and today, there are Islamic influences in it (like the minarets, etc.). The painting is found in the upper gallery. Some mosaics were made as late as the 12th century during the era of the Byzantine Empire. Similar art are found in Bulgaria, Russia, and other Eastern Orthodox nations. Ancient Greek and ancient Roman art influenced Byzantine art. How? Well, in ancient Byzantine there were large classical sculptures in Constantinople. Some of Byzantine was more abstract or symbolic. Frescoes were found in the empire as well. Frescoes are found in the ancient Etruscan culture and the ancient Roman culture. In the early years of the Byzantine Empire, there were reliefs of events like the Edict of Milan.
What was the Edict of Milan? This happened after the Roman Emperor Diocletian persecuted Christians. Diocletian was one (if not the most) anti-Christian Emperor of the Roman Empire since he allowed the murder of thousands of innocent Christians via persecution. The Edict of Milan was a letter signed by Emperors Constantine I and Licinius. The letter proclaimed religious toleration in the Roman Empire. The letter was issued in 313 A.D. This period caused more tolerance, but the Roman Empire still tried to harm the rights of non-approved Christian churches in that time and later. Iconoclasm was an influence in Byzantine art. Iconoclasm is a time when the Orthodox Church would ban any art that was related to religious matters from biblical stories to religious figures (as the religious leaders perceived such images as to be heretical). The Orthodox Church today accepts married priests and they refuse to acknowledge the Pope as the head of the whole Christian Church. This division between the Catholics and the Orthodox began during the era of the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Empire preserved ancient Greek and Roman works. This was vital to the development of the Renaissance since Byzantine scholars would travel to Rome with those ancient classical works. The reasons that these scholars left Turkey was that the Muslims conquered Constantinople in 1453 A.D. These Muslims were the Turks. The Turks are a group of people with both an Asian and an European genetic lineage. Some of them are related to the Mongolians. So, these pro-Byzantine scholars feared religious persecution from the Muslims. That is why these scholars traveled from Turkey into Italy, Greece, and the rest of Europe. The Byzantine culture spread via trade to the Black Sea, the Baltic Sea, etc. to reach the Scandinavian, Baltic, and Slavic peoples. St. Cyril allowed many Slavs even to accept the Greek alphabet. The Slavs are an Indo-European people. Originally, the Slavs were based in Central plus Eastern Europe. The spread of Byzantine culture also caused many Eastern European nations to accept the Orthodox religion too.
Also, architectural achievements were made during his reign and throughout the era of the Byzantine Empire. One great example of this architecture was the completion of the church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. Today, the church of Hagia Sophia has been transformed into a famous mosque. It was finished in 562 A.D. Hagia Sophia means Holy Spirit. Justinian died in November 16, 565 in Constantinople. Byzantine expanded its trade under Justinian and other Emperors. Trade is important in ancient civilization in numerous ways. Trade can allow goods to come into various locations. Trade can build economies in locations and trade and cause more cultural diffusion. Cultural diffusion is the spreading of cultures between nations or civilizations in a fluid fashion. Greek Orthodox Christianity and the Byzantine Empire allowed people in the Byzantine Empire to form their own unique style of art and architecture. One of the easiest ways to under Byzantine art was to understand mosaics. Mosaics are forms of art that use little sections (made up of clay, and other materials) to create elaborate images. Much of the art existed in Constantinople. This art spread into Europe and across the world. Mosaics are one dimensional, but they are highly colored in advanced patterns. One famous mosaic image is the image of Christ (being flanked by Mary and John the Baptist) as found in the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. The Hagia Sophia is a domed church and today, there are Islamic influences in it (like the minarets, etc.). The painting is found in the upper gallery. Some mosaics were made as late as the 12th century during the era of the Byzantine Empire. Similar art are found in Bulgaria, Russia, and other Eastern Orthodox nations. Ancient Greek and ancient Roman art influenced Byzantine art. How? Well, in ancient Byzantine there were large classical sculptures in Constantinople. Some of Byzantine was more abstract or symbolic. Frescoes were found in the empire as well. Frescoes are found in the ancient Etruscan culture and the ancient Roman culture. In the early years of the Byzantine Empire, there were reliefs of events like the Edict of Milan.
What was the Edict of Milan? This happened after the Roman Emperor Diocletian persecuted Christians. Diocletian was one (if not the most) anti-Christian Emperor of the Roman Empire since he allowed the murder of thousands of innocent Christians via persecution. The Edict of Milan was a letter signed by Emperors Constantine I and Licinius. The letter proclaimed religious toleration in the Roman Empire. The letter was issued in 313 A.D. This period caused more tolerance, but the Roman Empire still tried to harm the rights of non-approved Christian churches in that time and later. Iconoclasm was an influence in Byzantine art. Iconoclasm is a time when the Orthodox Church would ban any art that was related to religious matters from biblical stories to religious figures (as the religious leaders perceived such images as to be heretical). The Orthodox Church today accepts married priests and they refuse to acknowledge the Pope as the head of the whole Christian Church. This division between the Catholics and the Orthodox began during the era of the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Empire preserved ancient Greek and Roman works. This was vital to the development of the Renaissance since Byzantine scholars would travel to Rome with those ancient classical works. The reasons that these scholars left Turkey was that the Muslims conquered Constantinople in 1453 A.D. These Muslims were the Turks. The Turks are a group of people with both an Asian and an European genetic lineage. Some of them are related to the Mongolians. So, these pro-Byzantine scholars feared religious persecution from the Muslims. That is why these scholars traveled from Turkey into Italy, Greece, and the rest of Europe. The Byzantine culture spread via trade to the Black Sea, the Baltic Sea, etc. to reach the Scandinavian, Baltic, and Slavic peoples. St. Cyril allowed many Slavs even to accept the Greek alphabet. The Slavs are an Indo-European people. Originally, the Slavs were based in Central plus Eastern Europe. The spread of Byzantine culture also caused many Eastern European nations to accept the Orthodox religion too.
Philosophy
Philosophy is a key part of human thinking. Philosophy is a study of how the human mind thinks about issues such as existence, reason, the mind, language, knowledge, values, etc. In other words, philosophy tries to answer questions about morality, how did man exist in the world, are there moral absolutes in the universe, etc. Philosophy is sometimes not scientific. Therefore, many interpretations of philosophy do exist. Usually, arguments and discussions readily forms specific types of philosophies. The word philosophy itself comes from the Greek word φιλοσοφία (philosophia), which literally means "love of wisdom." Philosophy has been popularized by the ancient Greek philosophers of Socrates, Aristotle, Plato, and Zeno. Yet, philosophy has a history with the great ancient Chinese scholar Confucius as well. Confucius wanted a philosophy. His philosophy consisted of the belief system of: the respect for the family, the respect for government and a sense of order among classes. This system, as conceived by Confucius, was instituted in order for balance (and especially harmony) will exist in the Universe. His precepts influenced modern philosophies among the four corners of the Earth. His views were respected in the Zhou Dynasty and Chinese while the Chin dynasty hated the views of Confucius. Some Confucian scholars were murdered and persecution during the Chin dynasty. The Chin dynasty loved the strict tenets of Legalism (or the belief that a harsh rule of making people to experience fear was necessary for the government to be more stable in its composition). Legalism was founded by Heinzi.
By Timothy
By Timothy
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